In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory of scientific psychology. During this time, Wundt and his group developed the structuralism approach, which describes perceptions as combinations of elements called sensations which when grouped together form an image or object that people perceive. This approach dominated the period as an explanation to perceptions in psychology until 1920’s, when it set...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
American psychologist William James (1884) and Danish physiologist Carl Lange (1887) independently proposed their theories of emotion at approximately the same time. Their two theories were later combined into what is presently known as the James Lange Theory of Emotion.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The Instinct Theory of Motivation suggests that all organisms are evolutionarily "programmed" in ways that help them survive. They're born with traits that cause them to behave in certain way naturally. These "natural behaviors" are referred to as instincts, and these instincts are what drive all behaviors.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is a common anxiety disorder that is distinguished by a pattern of prolonged worrying, nervousness, tension, and anxiety. People who are diagnosed to have this disorder experience unreasonable worry about health, money, death, family and other interpersonal relationship problems or work difficulties, that is excessive, uncontrollable, and disproportionate to the actual source of worry. This severe...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years old) is the first Piaget stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Object permanence is a child's ability to understand that an object continues to exist even when it is out of sight.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a type of depression that occurs at a specific time of year—most commonly beginning in the late fall and continuing into winter. Less frequently, some individuals experience SAD during the spring or summer months.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Systematic desensitization is a form of behaviour therapy. Based on the principles of classical conditioning, the systematic desensitization technique is proved to be excellent in dealing with different phobias and anxiety disorder such as panic disorder.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Psychodynamic therapy is also known as insight oriented therapy. The main focus of psychodynamic therapy is to raise the patient’s self-awareness and educate him/her about the effects of their past experiences on their present attitudes and behaviors. Psychodynamic therapy is often used to treat complex mental disorders, personality and chronic mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, generalize anxiety disorder, social...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
What is Aversion Therapy Aversion therapy is a type of behaviour therapy which aims to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behaviour. This can be achieved by associating the undesirable behaviour with unpleasant stimuli (classical conditioning). Aversion therapy is based on the learning theory which states that all behaviours are learned and if we want to change an undesirable behaviour, we...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released by nerve endings. They transmit nerve impulses from nerve to nerve and from nerve to the effecter organs. Nerve impulse is nothing but a propagated action potential, which is the rapid sequential change in the membrane potential of the cells. Neurotransmitters transmit the nerve impulse from the pre-synaptic neuron to the post-synaptic neuron through the...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
What are neurons? Neurons are nerve cells. They are composed of 3 basic parts: cell body, dendrites and axon. Cell body (Soma) The cell body is the largest part of a neuron. Its main function is to keep the neurone alive by performing tasks such as energy production and protein synthesis. Dendrites Dendrites are the bushy branches of a neuron....| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, the stage of Generativity vs. Stagnation represents a pivotal moment in adulthood, typically occurring between the ages of 40 and 65.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Understanding how children grow—mentally, emotionally, and socially—has been the focus of developmental psychology for over a century. Two of the most influential figures in this field, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget, developed distinct but complementary theories to explain the stages of human development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Psychology notes, psychology study guide, psychology tutorials, and other online resources for college psychology students...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is best known for its emphasis on social interaction and cultural context in shaping cognitive development. One of its most fascinating elements is Vygotsky’s explanation of how children internalize language to develop thought. This transformation—from speaking aloud to thinking silently—is central to human cognition. In Vygotsky’s view, language doesn’t just express thought—it forms it.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Egocentrism, as described in developmental psychology, refers to a child’s difficulty in understanding perspectives that differ from their own. This is not the same as being selfish or self-centered in a moral sense. Instead, it is a cognitive limitation — a natural part of early mental development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Eating disorders are serious and complex mental health conditions that involve persistent disturbances in eating behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. These disorders go far beyond concerns about dieting or weight. They often stem from deep-rooted psychological, emotional, and sometimes biological factors. Eating disorders can affect people of any age, gender, cultural background, or body size—and without proper treatment, they can have life-threatening consequences.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Attachment theory, first introduced by John Bowlby and later expanded by Mary Ainsworth, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how infants form emotional bonds with caregivers and how those bonds shape development across the lifespan.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Human development is a complex and lifelong process. Developmental psychologists Robert Havighurst and Erik Erikson offered two influential yet distinct frameworks to explain how individuals grow and adapt through life. While Havighurst emphasized developmental tasks that people must master at different stages, Erikson focused on psychosocial conflicts that shape personality.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The first year of life is a time of rapid growth and profound transformation. For developmental psychologist Erik Erikson, this period is marked by the psychosocial conflict of trust versus mistrust—the first of eight critical stages in his psychosocial theory of development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The preschool years—roughly ages 3 to 6—are marked by a surge in curiosity, imagination, and social interaction. This is the period Erik Erikson identified as the third stage of psychosocial development: Initiative vs. Guilt.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory proposed that throughout our lives, we encounter certain crises that contribute to our psychosocial development. He presented these crises as 8 stages of psychosocial conflicts, often known as the 8 Erikson stages.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
As infants grow into toddlers, they begin to assert their will, explore their environment, and develop a sense of self apart from their caregivers. According to Erik Erikson, this critical phase—typically occurring between 18 months and 3 years—marks the second stage of psychosocial development: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Abraham Maslow is considered to be the Father of Humanistic Psychology. His theory is premised on the philosophies of humanism and existentialism that proposed that it is the unique experience of the individual that is the most important phenomenon in the study and analysis of human behavior.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
As children enter elementary school, the world expands beyond the home. Classrooms, peers, assignments, and evaluations become central to their daily lives. This shift marks a new psychosocial challenge in Erik Erikson’s theory of development : the stage of Industry vs. Inferiority, typically occurring between the ages of 6 and 12.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
It is rather rare for terminal diagnoses to be easily met with peace and acceptance – as it usually leads the patient to question everything that he or she is being told, and is likely to undergo five stages of grief. During this time, grief counseling is very important not only for the family of the patient, but for the...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
According to Jean Piaget, children at the preoperational stage (2-7 years old) of cognitive development don't have a good grasp of the concept of conservation. They develop this ability at the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old).| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Cognitive theories of motivation seek to explain our behaviors as a product of the careful study and active processing and interpretation of information received.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is a foundational concept in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development. It explains how children move from what they can do independently to what they can achieve with the help of others. This “in-between” space is where the richest and most meaningful learning takes place.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In 1964, a woman named Kitty Genovese was attacked by a man near an apartment in New York. The assault lasted 30 minutes and even though more than 38 people heard Kitty’s screams, some even looked out of their windows and witnessed the assault, none of these people came to her aid. Social psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané suspected...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In our last post, we talked about the James-Lange Theory of Emotion. That was just one of the theories of emotion. This week, we’re going to discuss another theory of emotion – the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. Background of the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion In the early 1900’s, Walter Bradford Cannon (1871 – 1945), a physiologist at Harvard University, was...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Our ancient ancestors realized that when it comes to finding food and fighting off enemies, it is beneficial to make a friend or two. That’s why we, humans, sometimes find it useful to become social. Why do we befriend some people but not others? Social psychology suggests 3 factors that influence our decision on picking friends. Proximity Proximity means geographic...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Mood disorders are psychological disorders that cause mood disturbance in people. There are 2 main types of mood disorders: 1) Depressive disorders 2) Bipolar disorder Depressive disorders It’s normal for us to feel sad and depressed but these feelings are usually short-lived. Depressive disorder is characterized by prolonged sadness and hopelessness. On average, an episode of depression lasts about 6...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Our brain is divided into 2 halves, or hemispheres, that are connected to each other by the corpus callosum. These two hemispheres control the motion in and receive sensory inputs from the opposite side of our body. In other words, the left hemisphere controls the right side of our body and also receives sensory inputs from the right side of our body.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In Psychology, aggression refers to physical and verbal behaviours that intend to hurt another person. There are different factors that trigger our aggressive behaviours. Biological factors Genetic influences Twin studies who that genes influence aggression in human. If one identical twin admits to being aggressive, the other twin often admits the same. Researchers are working on finding the “violent” gene....| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The Piaget theory suggests that regardless of culture, the cognitive development of children follows a predetermined order of stages, which are widely known as the Piaget stages of cognitive development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
What is morality? The concept of morality revolves around a person’s differentiation of good and bad when it comes to intentions, thoughts, decisions and actions. It may be driven by a specific code of conduct that comes with a certain religion or philosophy, or from a standard that a person sees as universal. What is moral development? Moral development looks...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Based on Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) developed his own theory of moral development in children. According to Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development, there are 6 stages of moral development, known as Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
If you use an apple computer—and even if you don’t—you’re likely to have seen the picture above before: a grey apple logo with a circular array of “spokes” below that signifies that the computer is booting up. If I ask you whether there is any circular motion in this image, your initial answer is likely to be: of course! But...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In order to avoid biased assumptions about someone’s personality, there is a more standardized way on how to evaluate a person and this is through personality assessment.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Attention deficit disorder (ADD) is a developmental disorder in children that interferes with the child’s learning process. Its symptoms can last from infancy to adulthood and are 2-4 times more common in boys than in girls. The symptoms of attention deficit disorder are usually identified through classroom observation. Symptoms of Attention Deficit Disorder Here are some common symptoms of children...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
We all know that people and some animals can learn. If you had a terrible meal every time you went out to a particular restaurant, you’d quickly learn to avoid it. But how does that learning take place? What happens in our mind and brain that enables us to perform this remarkably complex task almost without any effort? One very...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Kurt Lewin was one of the first psychologists to propose that the development of an individual was the product of the interaction between inborn predispositions (nature) and life experiences (nurture).| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
There are two dominant approaches in doing research, particularly in the Social Sciences – Quantitative and Qualitative approaches. The type of approach or method selected for use in a research study depends primarily on the set of questions the researcher wants to find answers to and the way he / she plans to gather data which shall be the basis of the results. Looking for a good fit of methodology is the researcher’s first step upon commencing on a study.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In social psychology, attitude can be defined as the “likes, dislikes of the individual, his positive or negative evaluation regarding people, objects, surroundings, events, world etc.” Attitude is something which keeps on changing according to our experiences. The more experiences we get, the more our attitude about certain things and events changes. For example, if you dislike someone but have...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
In Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory, he proposed that the behavior and development of a person are influenced by the interaction between the conscious and unconscious aspects of that person’s mind.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The First Five Years A few months after it is born, an infant starts to babble and coo. These meaningless sounds signify the initial stage in the development of language, which proceeds at an unbelievably rapid rate during the first five years of a child’s life. Babbling increasingly starts to approximate the language spoken by the child’s caregivers, initially through...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Operant conditioning may be thought of as learning that occurs naturally as a consequence of our actions and accounts for much of how we acquire the range of learned behaviours we engage in every day. It involves the performance of a behavior that is either made stronger or weaker, depending on the positive or negative consequences of the behaviour itself....| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The concepts of sex and gender are often inappropriately interchanged, with many people thinking that they are one and the same thing. Operationally defined, gender is the sense of being female or male, or the idea of femininity and masculinity, as differentiated from the concept of sex. While sex generally refers to the physiological and biological constitution of an individual,...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Although many theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental Tasks Theory, it was Robert Havighurst who elaborated on this theory in the most systematic and extensive manner.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
What is cognitive development? Cognitive development is an area of study in both psychology and neuroscience which focuses on a child’s development when it comes to the generating, processing and conceptualizing of information, perception, learning of languages and how this is used to express one’s self, as well as other areas of brain development as compared to an adult’s point...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The concept of child development refers to the psychological, emotional, and physiological changes that take place in humans from the time of birth up to adolescence. It focuses on how the individual starts from dependency, and eventually exercises autonomy. There are several theories that explain child development. Jean Piaget and his theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget is a Swiss...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Albert Bandura, an American psychologist, developed most of the principles of contemporary social learning theory / social-cognitive theory which is one of the more prominent and influential theories of development today. Bandura’s Social learning theory serves as a link that connects the behaviorist perspective and the cognitive perspective, supporting the behaviorist’s belief in the importance of reinforcement on maintaining behavior...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The social cognitive approach to personality supports the conviction that personality is determined in part by an individual’s cognitions, which include the person’s thoughts, feelings, values and expectations. Perceived Self-Efficacy Whether or not people perform certain actions largely depends on their expectancies or expectations pertinent to the desired outcome. Albert Bandura, one of the proponents of the social cognitive approach...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development in children known as the Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development in the early twentieth century.| The Psychology Notes Headquarters
The Social Proof Theory The Social Proof Theory, popularized by psychologist Robert Cialdini, maintains that a person who does not know what the proper behavior for a certain situation is, will look to other people to imitate what they are doing and to provide guidance for his actions. In other words, social proof is one way for us to discern...| The Psychology Notes Headquarters