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Dextromethorphan regulation by U.S. jurisdiction - Wikipedia

Fri, 17 Jul 2026 05:10:32 +0000

Opioid-based cough suppressant regulation in the US

This article is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (December 2018)

Dextromethorphan is a cough suppressant found in several cold medications. Several U.S. states have begun regulating who, and under what circumstances, may purchase dextromethorphan-containing products. Not all states have regulations documented at this time, but this article contains all the states that have documentation.

Alabama

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Alabama Code Title 20. Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics § 20-2-2^[1] only mentions dextromethorphan in relation to the fact that it is not defined as an opioid for the sake of regulation in this state. Alabama does not have any other provisions about the regulation of dextromethorphan at this time.

Alaska

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Alaska House Bill No. 125^[2] placed regulations on who can sell and who can buy products that contain any level of dextromethorphan. The provider must check the identification of a person wishing to purchase dextromethorphan-containing products to verify that the purchaser is 18 years of age or older. There is a stipulation that identification is not required if the provider could reasonably assume that the purchaser is 25 years of age or older based on appearance. A person under 18 years of age may purchase a product containing dextromethorphan if they have a prescription for said product from a licensed practitioner.

Any provider who knowingly and willfully provides a product containing dextromethorphan to a person who does not meet these requirements is subject to a fine. The first violation has a fine of $150 and each subsequent fine is $250.

This Bill took effect May 1, 2016.

Arizona

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Arizona House Bill 2086^[3] states that it is prohibited for any commercial entity knowingly or willingly sell or trade a dextromethorphan-containing product to a person under the age of 18. Inversely, it is prohibited for a person under the age of 18 to purchase any amount of dextromethorphan. Identification of age is required for purchase unless the purchaser outwardly appears to be above the age of 25. Other than identification of age, the bill does not require any additional provisions to control the purchase of dextromethorphan. These provisions do not apply to a person with a valid prescription purchasing a product containing dextromethorphan.

A person who violates the provisions of the bill will be subject to a first time warning and subsequent penalties of fifty dollars for additional offenses.

This Bill took effect April 24, 2014.

Arkansas

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Arkansas does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

California

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California bill S.B. 514^[4] states that a manufacturer, wholesaler, retailer, or other person is prohibited from selling or transferring a specified substance to a person under the age of 18, except as specified. Although this bill extended to the drugs ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, it was used as a starting point for building the bill for dextromethorphan. This bill provided that any infraction of a provider in an over-the-counter sale who willfully and knowingly supply, deliver, or give possession of a non-prescription drug that contains dextromethorphan to a person under the age of 18 would incur a fine of $250. The bill also mentions that proof that identification at the time of purchase was demanded by the provider can be used as a defense in criminal prosecution. The bill also states that a retail clerk who fails to identify the age of the purchaser would not be found guilty unless the retail clerk was a willful participant in an ongoing conspiracy to sell dextromethorphan to minors.

This bill took effect January 1, 2012.

Colorado

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Colorado House Bill 18-1307^[5] states that it is unlawful for a store to provide a product containing any amount of dextromethorphan to a person that is under the age of 18. Providers are required to obtain proof that the purchaser is above the age of 18 before the sale unless the provider can reasonably assume that the purchaser is above the age of 18 on the basis of appearance. This bill does not place regulations on whether the store selling dextromethorphan must put the product in a special area in the store, whether access to the dextromethorphan products should be restricted, or whether they store should keep transactions records.

If a provider violates these regulations, they are first subject to a written warning and then a fine of $200 for every following offense.

This bill took effect August 8, 2018.

Connecticut

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Connecticut has some documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Delaware

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Delaware House Bill 329^[6] states that no commercial entity shall provide a product containing dextromethorphan to a person under the age of 18 and that a person under the age of 18 shall not purchase a product containing dextromethorphan. Providers are required to acquire identification of age from any on they presume to be under the age of 25. This bill does not place regulation on whether the commercial entity is required to place any barrier on access to the product beyond identification. The stipulations of age are not required when the dextromethorphan containing produce it purchased with a valid prescription.

If a provider is found in violation of the regulations outlined in this bill, they will be subject to a written warning from the Office of Controlled Substances for the first violation. A second violation will result in a fine of $150. The third and each subsequent violation will result in a fine of $250.

This bill took effect June 16, 2016.

Florida

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Florida Senate Bill 938^[7] states that a manufacturer, distributor, or retailer, or its employees and representatives is prohibited to provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18 and that a person under the age of 18 is prohibited from purchasing a product containing dextromethorphan. The employee or representative involved in the sale of dextromethorphan is required to obtain proof of age of the purchaser if that purchaser could be presumed to be under the age of 25 based on appearance.

If a provider is found to be in violation of these regulations, they are subject to a first time written warning and for subsequent violations subject to a civil citation that will each incur a fine of $100.

This bill took effect January 1, 2017.

Georgia

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Georgia does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Hawaii

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Hawaii does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Idaho

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Idaho does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Illinois

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Illinois has banned the sale of pure forms of dextromethorphan.^[8]

Indiana

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Indiana does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Iowa

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Iowa does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Kansas

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Kansas does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Kentucky

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Kentucky House Bill 24^[9] states that a person, "other than a medical facility, medical practitioner, pharmacist, pharmacy intern, pharmacy technician, or pharmacy licensed" is prohibited to possess more than one gram of pure dextromethorphan or a dextromethorphan that has been extracted from other medications. A person under the age or 18 is prohibited from purchasing a product containing dextromethorphan and are prohibited to use false identification in the pursuit of purchase. No person is allowed to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product with the intent to provide it to a person under the age of 18. The provider of a dextromethorphan containing product must acquire proof of age if they believe that the potential purchaser is below the age of 18.

Any person found to possess more than one gram of pure dextromethorphan without the required credentials is subject to a $1000 fine for the first offense and a $2500 fine for each subsequent offense.

A person who is found to be assisting a person under the age of 18 in acquiring a product containing dextromethorphan is subject to a $100 fine for the first offense and a $200 fine for each subsequent offense.

A person under the age of 18 who attempts to purchase a product that contains dextromethorphan, and uses false identification to do so, is subject to a $25 fine for the first offense, a $100 fine for the second offense, and a $200 for the third and each subsequent offense.

This bill took effect March 19, 2015.

Louisiana

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Louisianan House Bill 514^[10] states that a person under the age of 18 is prohibited to purchase, or attempt to purchase, any nonprescription products that contain dextromethorphan. This bill also states that a provider is prohibited to sell a product that contains dextromethorphan to a person under the age of 18 unless said purchaser has a valid prescription for the product. This bill also requires that identification is provided at the time of purchase and that the identification is issued by either a state or the United States government, such as a license or passport.

This bill took effect August 1, 2014.

Maine

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Maine does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Maryland

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Maryland Senate Bill 939^[11] states that a person is prohibited to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product unless the potential purchaser provides government issued photographic identification proving age of at least 18 years and signs a receipt documenting the date and time of the transaction, the name and address of the purchaser, and the amount of product purchased. Each establishment that provides dextromethorphan containing products is required to maintain records of purchase and post signs describing the restriction of dextromethorphan and the health reasons behind the restriction. A person is prohibited to purchase more than 3.6 grams of dextromethorphan containing products within a 30-day period unless it is in pursuant to a valid prescription.

Any person found in violation of this bill is guilty of a misdemeanor and subject to a fine of $1000, or imprisonment of not more than one year, or both the fine and the imprisonment.

This bill was not passed.

Massachusetts

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The Massachusetts legislature considered legislation in the 2021-2022 session to ban the sale of products containing dextromethorphan to minors, but the bill ^[12] did not advance beyond the Public Health Committee.

Michigan

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Michigan Governor Gretchen Whitmer signed HB 4412, legislation to combat teen abuse of over-the-counter (OTC) medicines containing the cough suppressant dextromethorphan (DXM) by prohibiting the sale of DXM-containing products to minors without a prescription. The new law went into effect on July 1, 2020. A person making a retail sale of a finished drug product containing any quantity of dextromethorphan must require and obtain proof of age from the purchaser before completing the sale, unless from the purchaser's outward appearance the person making the sale would reasonably presume the purchaser to be at least 25 years of age. ^[13]

Minnesota

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Minnesota does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Mississippi

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Mississippi does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Missouri

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Missouri does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Montana

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Montana does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Nebraska

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Nebraska does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Nevada

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Nevada Senate Bill 159^[14] states that it is prohibited to provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18. A person under the age of 18 is prohibited from purchasing a product that contains dextromethorphan unless they have a valid prescription. The provider is required to obtain identification for proof of age unless the provider can presume that the purchaser is above the age of 18 by the purchaser's appearance.

If a provider is found to be in violation, they are subject to a warning for the first offense and a civil penalty of $50 for each subsequent violation.

This bill took effect June 6, 2017.

New Hampshire

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New Hampshire does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

New Jersey

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New Jersey Assembly Bill 622^[15] states that a person will not directly or indirectly sell or offer to sell any product containing any amount of dextromethorphan to a person under the age of 18. The bill then goes on to state the defenses a provider of dextromethorphan could use in the event that they are in violation of the bill. If the person purchasing the dextromethorphan provided false identification to the time of purchase, then the provider would not be held liable for violating this bill. Also, if the person purchasing the dextromethorphan product could be presumed to be of the legal age, then the purchaser will not be held liable. This differs from others states due to the fact that the provider need only reasonably assume that the purchaser is above the age of 18 rather than above the age of 25.

If the provider does not meet these defense standards, then they will receive a fine of no more than $750.

New Mexico

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New Mexico does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

New York

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New York Senate Bill S696B^[16] states that no provider shall sell a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18 without a valid prescription. Providers are required to obtain identification of age for anyone who looks to be under the age of 25 based on appearance.

Any provider found to be in violation of this bill is subject to a fine of $250 for each violation.

This bill took effect January 23, 2014.

North Carolina

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North Carolina does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase or use of dextromethorphan available at this time.

North Dakota

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North Dakota does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Ohio

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Effective September 30, 2021, HB 9 will prohibit retailers (including pharmacies) from selling, supplying, delivering, or giving a drug that contains dextromethorphan to a person under 18 years of age, unless the person has prescription for the product. Under the new law, ORC 2925.62, retailers (or employee of retailers) are required to request proof of age and identity for all purchases of dextromethorphan products who appear to be under the age of 25.

Oklahoma

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Oklahoma does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Oregon

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Oregon Senate Bill 743^[17] states that a provider is prohibited to provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18 and an individual under the age of 18 is prohibited to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product. The provider is required to obtain identification for proof of age unless the provider can reasonable presume, based on the purchaser's appearance, that the purchaser is 25 years of age or older.

Any provider found to be in violation of this bill is subject to a warning from law enforcement for the first violation, a fine of $150 for the second violation, and a fine of $250 for the third violation and each subsequent violation.

Any purchaser found to be in violation of this bill is subject to a warning from law enforcement for the first violation and a fine of $50 for the second violation and each subsequent violation.

This bill took effect January 1, 2018.

Pennsylvania

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Pennsylvania does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Rhode Island

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In 2006, a bill was introduced that would have stated that a provider is prohibited to provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18 and an individual under the age of 18 is prohibited to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product. The provider is required to obtain identification for proof of age unless the provider can reasonable presume, based on the purchaser's appearance, that the purchaser is 25 years of age or older.

Any purchaser found to be in violation of this bill is subject to a warning from law enforcement for the first violation and a fine of $50 for the second violation and each subsequent violation.

This bill did not pass.

South Carolina

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South Carolina does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Some pharmacies, such as Walgreens will ask for your ID despite there being no regulations set in place, pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan.

South Dakota

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South Dakota does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Tennessee

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Tennessee Senate Bill 45^[18] states that it is prohibited that a provider to provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18. This bill also states that it is prohibited for a person under the age of 18 to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product. These sections do not apply to a person under the age of 18 that is an emancipated minor or if the product was purchased in pursuit to a valid prescription. The provider is required to obtain identification for proof of age or emancipation before completing the sale. Identification is not required if the provider can assume that the purchaser is above the age of 35 based on appearance.

A provider found in violation of this bill has committed a Class B misdemeanor and is subject to a fine of $100 for the first offense and a fine of $500 for the second offense and each subsequent offense.

This bill took effect on July 1, 2015

Texas

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As of September 1, 2019, purchasers of dextromethorphan in Texas must be 18 years old.^[19]

Utah

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Utah does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Vermont

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Vermont does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available at this time.

Virginia

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Virginia Senate Bill 213^[20] states that no pharmacy or retail entity shall provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18. It is also prohibited for a person under the age of 18 to purchase dextromethorphan. The retail entity providing the dextromethorphan is required to obtain identification that the purchaser is above the age of 18 at the time of purchase unless the purchaser can be presumed to be above the age of 25 based on appearance.

If a provider is found in violation of this bill, the provider will receive a notice of noncompliance and then a $25 civil penalty for each subsequent violation.

This bill took effect January 1, 2015.

Washington

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Washington Second Substitute House Bill 2163^[21] states that a provider of a dextromethorphan containing product is required to obtain proof of age from a purchaser unless the provider can assume that the purchaser is about the age of 25 based on appearance. It is prohibited for a provider to provide a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18 and it is prohibited for a person under the age of 18 to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product. These provisions do not apply to a person under the age of 18 who is emancipated, and provides proof of emancipation at the time of purchase, or to a person under the age of 18 who is actively enrolled in the military, and can provide their military identification card at the time of purchase.

A provider or purchaser found in violation of this bill is subject to a written warning from law enforcement for the first offense and is guilty of a class 1 civil infraction.

This bill took effect July 1, 2015.

West Virginia

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A person may not knowingly or willfully sell or trade a finished drug product containing any quantity of dextromethorphan to a person under 18 years of age.

^[22]A person under 18 years of age, unless an emancipated minor, may not purchase a finished drug product containing any quantity of dextromethorphan.

A person making a retail sale of a finished drug product containing any quantity of dextromethorphan shall require and obtain proof of age from the purchaser before completing the sale, unless from the purchaser’s outward appearance the person making the sale would reasonably presume the purchaser to be at least 25 years of age.

This section does not apply to a medication containing dextromethorphan that is sold pursuant to a valid prescription.

(Any person violating the provisions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be fined not less than $100 nor more than $250.

Wisconsin

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Wisconsin Assembly Bill 681^[23] states that a provider is prohibited from providing a dextromethorphan containing product to a person under the age of 18 and a person under the age of 18 is prohibited to purchase a dextromethorphan containing product. This part of the bill does not apply to a person under the age of 18 purchasing a dextromethorphan containing product pursuant to a prescription. A provider is required to obtain proof of age from a purchaser who, based on appearance, could be presumed to be under the age of 25.

A person in violation of this bill is subject to a fine of $250 for each violation.

This bill took effect January 1, 2019.

Wyoming

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Wyoming does not have any documented regulation pertaining to the purchase of dextromethorphan available, at this time.

References

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↑ "Alabama Code Title 20. Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics § 20-2-2".
↑ "An Act relating to the sale of products containing dextromethorphan; relating to the regulation of dextromethorphan by municipalities; and providing for an effective date" (PDF).
↑ "Arizona HB 2086" (PDF). April 2014.
↑ "SB-514 Dextromethorphan: sale to minors prohibited". 2011–2012.
↑ "Colorado House Bill 18-1307" (PDF). 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 12, 2018.
↑ "Delaware House Bill 329". 2016.
↑ "Florida Senate Bill 938: Retail Sale of Dextromethorphan". 2016.
↑ "New law bans pure form of DXM, a cough syrup ingredient". Herald-Review.com. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
↑ "Kentucky House Bill 24". 2015.
↑ "Louisiana Board of Pharmacy, Act 176 (HB 514)" (PDF). 2014.
↑ "Maryland Senate Bill 939" (PDF). 2007.
↑ "Massachusetts House bill 4641 (192nd session)". 2022.
↑ https://www.legislature.mi.gov/Laws/MCL?objectName=MCL-333-17766G
↑ "Nevada Senate Bill 159" (PDF). 2017.
↑ "Prohibits sale of certain products containing dextromethorphan to minors under 18 years of age". 13 October 2015.
↑ "New York Senate Bill S696B". 2013–2014.
↑ "Oregon Senate Bill 743". 2017.
↑ "Tennessee Senate Bill 45" (PDF). 2015.
↑ Tribune, The Texas; Byrne, Elizabeth (2019-05-29). "Texas law will outlaw minors from buying popular cough medicine". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved 2019-08-22.
↑ "Virginia SB 213 Dextromethorphan Distribution Act; penalty". 2014.
↑ "Washington Second Substitute House Bill 2163" (PDF). 2015.
↑ https://code.wvlegislature.gov/60A-4-417/
↑ "Wisconsin Assembly Bill 681". 2017.

Kate Warne - Wikipedia

Fri, 17 Jul 2026 04:05:27 +0000

The Baltimore Plot

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In 1861, Allan Pinkerton was hired by Samuel H. Felton, president of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad, to investigate secessionist activity and threats of damage to the railroad in Maryland. Pinkerton went to work placing agents at various points in Maryland to investigate this potential activity. As the investigation proceeded, Pinkerton became aware that the activity in Maryland did not just end with the railroad; it also included the president-elect, Abraham Lincoln. Pinkerton received permission to continue his investigation and focus on the possible assassination plot. Warne was one of five agents sent to Baltimore, Maryland, on February 3, 1861, to investigate the hotbed of secessionist activity.^[16]^[10]^[17]

During the investigation, evidence unveiled a plot to assassinate Lincoln on his way to take office. Under the aliases Mrs. Cherry and Mrs. M. Barley (M.B.), Warne tracked suspicious movement among the Baltimore secessionists.^[18] It was in part through her undercover work in the guise of a wealthy Southern lady visiting Baltimore "with a thick southern accent", allowing her to infiltrate secessionist social gatherings in the Baltimore area. This included the classy Barnum Hotel, also known as Barnum's City Hotel, allowing her to verify a plot to assassinate Lincoln and develop details of how the assassination was going to occur.^[19] Pinkerton had agents across Maryland, but it was Warne specifically who supplied many of the key details that led Pinkerton to believe that the plot was imminent. Warne had befriended secessionists in Maryland and collected many details about the plot to assassinate Lincoln.^[20]

The president-elect, Abraham Lincoln, was traveling from his home in Springfield, Illinois, to the capital via a train tour that was to stop at notable cities along the way. His published program showed that Lincoln's last leg of the journey was from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, to Washington, D.C. Due to the configuration of the rail system, all southbound trains required a transfer to be made in Baltimore. The tracks from points north ended at Calvert Street and the tracks heading south started at Camden Street (now the Camden Yards station). The distance between these two stations was about a mile by carriage ride.^[21] The secessionist plot was said to be that when Lincoln was passing through part of Calvert St. Station, a row or fight would occur, resulting in police officers rushing out, leaving Lincoln "entirely unprotected and at the mercy of a mob of Secessionists" that would then surround him. It was further alleged that a small steamship had been chartered, sitting in a nearby river, on which the murderers would flee, and travel immediately to the state of Virginia.^[21]

After seeing the pieces of the plot coming together, Pinkerton directed Kate Warne to take the 5:10 evening train to New York City on the morning of February 18. Once there, she was to set up a meeting with Norman B. Judd and give him a letter from Pinkerton outlining the known details of the assassination attempt. After receiving the details of the Baltimore Plot from Warne, Judd set up a meeting between himself, Pinkerton, and Lincoln on February 21.^[22] At this meeting, Lincoln was doubtful of the existence of an assassination plot or that if such a plot existed that it should be taken seriously.

However, a second independent source confirmed the plot by way of Frederick W. Seward, son of William H. Seward, the secretary of state–designate.^[12] From this point, Lincoln agreed that the assassination plot was plausible enough to take action. Lincoln decided to avoid hazard where it was not necessary; however, he refused to cancel any of his scheduled plans in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. His agenda included: giving three speeches, raising of the American flag at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, and attending a high-profile dinner.^[23]

Train arrangements were made accordingly that allowed Lincoln to fulfill his scheduled duties in Harrisburg. It was not until 5:45 at night that there was any deviation from his schedule. John George Nicolay, Lincoln's private secretary, interrupted the dinner party to excuse the president-elect. Lincoln then changed into a traveling suit and a soft felt cap. He carried a shawl upon one arm to play the role of an invalid.^[24] Pinkerton, meanwhile, had the telegraph lines interrupted to prevent any knowledge of the deviation in Lincoln's schedule. At the station, Warne entered the sleeping car through the rear along with Pinkerton, Ward Hill Lamon, and a still-disguised Lincoln. She greeted Lincoln loudly as she would have a true brother.^[25]

Goggles carried by Lincoln's bodyguards during his train ride through Baltimore

From Harrisburg, Abraham Lincoln rode to Philadelphia by a special Pennsylvania Railroad train. From Philadelphia he went to Baltimore by a special Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore train on the night of February 22–23.^[26] It is said that Kate Warne did not sleep a wink on the overnight trip from Pennsylvania to Washington D.C. The disguises provided by Warne that night enabled Lincoln to make it through Baltimore without recognition and take his seat in the White House. It is believed that Pinkerton came up with the slogan to his agency "we never sleep" as a result of Warne's guard of Lincoln that night. Warne was key in the foiled Baltimore assassination plot – not only did she help uncover its details, but she also carried out most of the arrangements to smuggle Lincoln into Washington.^[8]^[25] She couriered secret information and set up meetings as well as securing the necessary four berths on a train leaving Philadelphia under the pretext that these berths were for her sick brother and family members.^[21] The train pulled out shortly before 11 p.m. and arrived in Baltimore about 3:30 a.m. on February 23. Warne remained in Baltimore as the sleeping cars with Lincoln on board were shifted to another train, which arrived in Washington around 6 a.m.^[27]

As such, it has been stated that Warne was instrumental not only in Lincoln's safe passage to take the oath of office but in convincing Pinkerton that there was a plot to assassinate Lincoln in Baltimore.^[28]^[29]^[30]

Financial management - Wikipedia

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Sparkline - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:57:59 +0000

Small data visualisation, usually inline with text

Example sparklines in small multiple
Index	Value	Change
Dow Jones	10765.45	−32.82 (−0.30%)
S&P 500	1256.92	−8.10 (−0.64%)
Sparklines showing the movement of the Dow Jones Industrial Average and S&P 500 during February 7, 2006

A sparkline is a very small line chart, typically drawn without axes or coordinates. It presents the general shape of a variation (typically over time) in some measurement, such as temperature or stock market price, in a simple and highly condensed way. Whereas a typical chart is designed to professionally show as much data as possible, and is set off from the flow of text, sparklines are intended to be succinct, memorable, and located where they are discussed. Sparklines are small enough to be embedded in text, or several sparklines may be grouped together as elements of a small multiple.

History

[edit]

Illustration from the "Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman"

In 1762 Laurence Sterne used typographical devices in his sixth volume of The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman to illustrate his narrative proceeding: "These were the four lines I moved through my first, second, third, and fourth volumes,–".^[1]

The 1888 monograph describing the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa shows barometric signatures of the event obtained at various stations around the world in the same fashion, but in separate plates (VII & VIII), not within the text.^[2]

Edward Tufte documented a compact style in 1983 called "intense continuous time-series".^[3] He introduced the term sparkline in 2006 for "small, high resolution graphics embedded in a context of words, numbers, images",^[4]^[5] which are "data-intense, design-simple, word-sized graphics".^[6] Later in 2020, Tufte attributed the idea to Donald Knuth's "METAFONTbook".^[7]

Sparklines in Medved QuoteTracker^[8]

The first software sparkline was programmed in 1999 by Peter Zelchenko.^[9] He introduced "an inline-chart" feature for Mike Medved's QuoteTracker.^[10]^[9] TD Ameritrade later discontinued QuoteTracker.^[11]

On May 7, 2008, Microsoft employees filed a patent application for the implementation of sparklines in Microsoft Excel 2010. The application was published on November 12, 2009,^[12] prompting Tufte^[13] to express concerns about patent breadth and non-novelty.^[14] On 23 January, 2009, MultiRacio Ltd. published an OpenOffice.org Calc extension named "EuroOffice Sparkline".^[15] On March 3, 2022, Tomaž Vajngerl implemented sparklines in LibreOffice Calc version 7.4, including support for importing sparklines from the OOXML Workbook format.^[16]

Usage

[edit]

Sparklines are frequently used in line with text. For example:

The Dow Jones Industrial Average for February 7, 2006 .

The sparkline should be about the same height as the text around it. Tufte offers some useful design principles for the sizing of sparklines to maximize their readability.^[5]

References

[edit]

↑ Laurence Sterne, Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Ann Ward (vol. 1–2), Dodsley (vol. 3–4), Becket & DeHondt (vol. 5–9), 1759-1767
↑ Symons, G. J., Judd, J. W., Strachey, S. R., Wharton, W. J. L., Evans, F. J., Russell, F. A. R., ... & Whipple, G. M. (1888). The eruption of Krakatoa: And subsequent phenomena. Trübner & Company. Plate VII
↑ Tufte, Edward (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Quoted in "ET Work on Sparklines". Retrieved from http://www.edwardtufte.com/bboard/q-and-a-fetch-msg?msg_id=000AIr.
↑ Bissantz & Company GmbH. "Sparklines: Another masterpiece of Edward Tufte". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11.
1 2 Edward Tufte (November 2013). "Sparkline theory and practice". Edward Tufte forum.
↑ Edward Tufte (2006). Beautiful Evidence. Graphics Press. ISBN 0-9613921-7-7.
↑ @EdwardTufte (May 16, 2020). "Donald Knuth in The METAFONTbook, 1986, uses a letterform matrix 100pt by 10pt to show data with a "skyline texture." Knuth has invented everything. The history of sparkline-like inline graphics for 800 years" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
↑ Zelchenko, Peter; Medved, Michael. "Medved QuoteTracker screenshot". Wayback Machine. Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 13 October 1999. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
1 2 Capadisli, Sarven (October 18, 2016). Sparqlines: SPARQL to Sparkline (PDF). Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Semantic Statistics co-located with 15th International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC 2016). Vol. 1654.
↑ "WaybackMachine snapshot from October 13, 1999, see "Screen Shots"". Archived from the original on 1999-11-27.
↑ Carey, Theresa W. (Nov 26, 2016). "Medved Revives; Sneak Peek at StockNews.com". Barron's.
↑ "Sparklines in the grid". 2009-11-12. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
↑ "Sparklines in Excel". 2009-07-17. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
↑ "Microsoft makes patent claim for Sparklines". 2009-11-19. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
↑ "EuroOffice Sparkline | OpenOffice.org repository for Extensions". Archived from the original on 2009-01-26. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
↑ Vajngerl, Tomaž (2022-03-08). "Sparklines in Calc". Retrieved 2022-03-09.

Block Elements - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:57:59 +0000

For the HTML element, see HTML element § Block elements.

Unicode character block

Block Elements
Range	U+2580..U+259F (32 code points)
Plane	BMP
Scripts	Common
Symbol sets	Block fills
Assigned	32 code points
Unused	0 reserved code points
Unicode Version History

1.0.0 (1991)	22 (+22)
3.2 (2002)	32 (+10)

Unicode documentation
Code chart ∣ Web page
Note: ^[1]^[2]

Block Elements is a Unicode block containing square block symbols of various fill and shading. Used along with block elements are box-drawing characters, shade characters, and terminal graphic characters. These can be used for filling regions of the screen and portraying drop shadows. Its block name in Unicode 1.0 was Blocks.^[3]

Character table

[edit]

Code	Result	Description
U+2580	▀	Upper half block
U+2581	▁	Lower one eighth block
U+2582	▂	Lower one quarter block
U+2583	▃	Lower three eighths block
U+2584	▄	Lower half block
U+2585	▅	Lower five eighths block
U+2586	▆	Lower three quarters block
U+2587	▇	Lower seven eighths block
U+2588	█	Full block
U+2589	▉	Left seven eighths block
U+258A	▊	Left three quarters block
U+258B	▋	Left five eighths block
U+258C	▌	Left half block
U+258D	▍	Left three eighths block
U+258E	▎	Left one quarter block
U+258F	▏	Left one eighth block
U+2590	▐	Right half block
U+2591	░	Light shade
U+2592	▒	Medium shade
U+2593	▓	Dark shade
U+2594	▔	Upper one eighth block
U+2595	▕	Right one eighth block
U+2596	▖	Quadrant lower left
U+2597	▗	Quadrant lower right
U+2598	▘	Quadrant upper left
U+2599	▙	Quadrant upper left and lower left and lower right
U+259A	▚	Quadrant upper left and lower right
U+259B	▛	Quadrant upper left and upper right and lower left
U+259C	▜	Quadrant upper left and upper right and lower right
U+259D	▝	Quadrant upper right
U+259E	▞	Quadrant upper right and lower left
U+259F	▟	Quadrant upper right and lower left and lower right

Font coverage

[edit]

Font sets like Code2000 and the DejaVu family include coverage for each of the glyphs in the Block Elements range.^[4] Unifont also contains all the glyphs.^[5] Among the fonts in widespread use,^[6]^[7] full implementation is provided by Segoe UI Symbol.^[4]

The glyphs in Block Elements each share the same character width in most supported fonts, allowing them to be used graphically in row and column arrangements. However, the block does not contain a space character of its own and ASCII space may or may not render at the same width as Block Elements glyphs, as those characters are intended to be used exclusively for monospaced fonts.

History

[edit]

The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Block Elements block:

Version	Final code points^[a]	Count	L2 ID	WG2 ID	Document
1.0.0	U+2580..2595	22			(to be determined)
3.2	U+2596..259F	10	L2/00-159		da Cruz, Frank (2000-03-31), Supplemental Terminal Graphics for Unicode
			L2/00-115R2		Moore, Lisa (2000-08-08), "Motion 83-M24", Minutes Of UTC Meeting #83
			L2/00-329	N2265	Whistler, Ken (2000-09-19), Proposal for Terminal Graphic Symbols in the BMP
			L2/01-050	N2253	Umamaheswaran, V. S. (2001-01-21), "Resolution M39.20 (Terminal Graphic Symbols)", Minutes of the SC2/WG2 meeting in Athens, September 2000
↑ Proposed code points and characters names may differ from final code points and names

References

[edit]

↑ "Unicode character database". The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 2023-07-26.
↑ "Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard". The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 2023-07-26.
↑ "3.8: Block-by-Block Charts" (PDF). The Unicode Standard. version 1.0. Unicode Consortium.
1 2 "Font Support for Unicode Block 'Block Elements'". Retrieved 2016-03-13.
↑ "GNU Unifont Glyphs". Unifoundry.com. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
↑ "Mac OS X 10.5 bundled with Arial Unicode MS". Retrieved 2008-09-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
↑ "Common fonts to all versions of Windows & Mac equivalents". Retrieved 2008-09-17.

List of HTTP header fields - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:57:51 +0000

Standard request fields

[edit source]

A-IM

[edit source]

[RFC 3229, permanent] Acceptable instance-manipulations for the request.^[5]

For example: A-IM: feed

Accept

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[RFC 9110, permanent] Media type(s) that is/are acceptable for the response. See Content negotiation.

For example: Accept: text/html

Accept-Charset

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Character sets that are acceptable.

For example: Accept-Charset: utf-8

Accept-Datetime

[edit source]

[RFC 7089, provisional] Acceptable version in time.

For example: Accept-Datetime: Thu, 31 May 2007 20:35:00 GMT

Accept-Encoding

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[RFC 9110, permanent] List of acceptable encodings. See HTTP compression.

For example: Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate

Accept-Language

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] List of acceptable human languages for response. See Content negotiation.

For example: Accept-Language: en-US

Authorization

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[RFC 9110, permanent] Authentication credentials for HTTP authentication.

For example: Authorization: Basic QWxhZGRpbjpvcGVuIHNlc2FtZQ==

Cache-Control

[edit source]

Content-Digest

[edit source]

[RFC 9530, Digest Fields]^[11] Content-Digest header enables verification of message content integrity by computing a digest over the literal bytes transmitted in the HTTP message. This digest reflects the content after applying transformations like Content-Encoding, matching exactly what travels across the network.

Content-Encoding

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[RFC 9110, permanent] The type of encoding used on the data. See HTTP compression.

For example: Content-Encoding: gzip

Content-Length

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[RFC 9110, permanent] The length of the request body in octets (8-bit bytes).

For example: Content-Length: 348

Content-Type

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[RFC 9110, permanent] The Media type of the body of the request (used with POST and PUT requests).

For example: Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded

Cookie

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[RFC 2965, 6265, permanent] An HTTP cookie previously sent by the server with Set-Cookie (below).

For example: Cookie: $Version=1; Skin=new;

Date

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] The date and time at which the message was originated (in "HTTP-date" format as defined by RFC 9110: HTTP Semantics, section 5.6.7 "Date/Time Formats").

For example: Date: Tue, 15 Nov 1994 08:12:31 GMT

Expect

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Indicates that particular server behaviors are required by the client.

For example: Expect: 100-continue

From

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] The email address of the user making the request.

For example: From: user@example.com

Host

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, 9113, permanent] The domain name of the server (for virtual hosting), and the TCP port number on which the server is listening. The port number may be omitted if the port is the standard port for the service requested. Mandatory since HTTP/1.1.^[14] If the request is generated directly in HTTP/2, it should not be used.^[15]

For example: Host: en.wikipedia.org:8080 Host: en.wikipedia.org

HTTP2-Settings

[edit source]

[RFC 7540, 9113, obsolete] A request that upgrades from HTTP/1.1 to HTTP/2 MUST include exactly one HTTP2-Settings header field. The HTTP2-Settings header field is a connection-specific header field that includes parameters that govern the HTTP/2 connection, provided in anticipation of the server accepting the request to upgrade.^[16]^[17]

For example: HTTP2-Settings: token64

If-Match

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Only perform the action if the client supplied entity matches the same entity on the server. This is mainly for methods like PUT to only update a resource if it has not been modified since the user last updated it.

For example: If-Match: "737060cd8c284d8af7ad3082f209582d"

If-Modified-Since

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Allows a 304 Not Modified to be returned if content is unchanged.

For example: If-Modified-Since: Sat, 29 Oct 1994 19:43:31 GMT

If-None-Match

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Allows a 304 Not Modified to be returned if content is unchanged, see HTTP ETag.

For example: If-None-Match: "737060cd8c284d8af7ad3082f209582d"

If-Range

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] If the entity is unchanged, send me the part(s) that I am missing; otherwise, send me the entire new entity.

For example: If-Range: "737060cd8c284d8af7ad3082f209582d"

If-Unmodified-Since

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Only send the response if the entity has not been modified since a specific time.

For example: If-Unmodified-Since: Sat, 29 Oct 1994 19:43:31 GMT

Max-Forwards

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Limit the number of times the message can be forwarded through proxies or gateways.

For example: Max-Forwards: 10

Pragma

[edit source]

[RFC 9111, outdated] Implementation-specific fields that may have various effects anywhere along the request-response chain.

For example: Pragma: no-cache

Prefer

[edit source]

[RFC 7240, permanent] Allows client to request that certain behaviors be employed by a server while processing a request.

For example: Prefer: return=representation

Proxy-Authorization

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Authorization credentials for connecting to a proxy.

For example: Proxy-Authorization: Basic QWxhZGRpbjpvcGVuIHNlc2FtZQ==

Range

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Request only part of an entity. Bytes are numbered from 0. See Byte serving.

For example: Range: bytes=500-999

Referer [sic]

[edit source]

TE

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] The transfer encodings the user agent is willing to accept: the same values as for the response header field Transfer-Encoding can be used, plus the "trailers" value (related to the "chunked" transfer method) to notify the server it expects to receive additional fields in the trailer after the last, zero-sized, chunk. Only trailers is supported in HTTP/2.^[10]

For example: TE: trailers, deflate

Trailer

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] The Trailer general field value indicates that the given set of header fields is present in the trailer of a message encoded with chunked transfer coding.

For example: Trailer: Max-Forwards

Transfer-Encoding

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] The form of encoding used to safely transfer the entity to the user. Currently defined methods are: chunked, compress, deflate, gzip, identity. Must not be used with HTTP/2.^[10]

For example: Transfer-Encoding: chunked

User-Agent

[edit source]

Via

[edit source]

[RFC 9110, permanent] Informs the server of proxies through which the request was sent.

For example: Via: 1.0 fred, 1.1 example.com (Apache/1.1)

Warning

[edit source]

[RFC 7234, 9111, obsolete] A warning about a possible problem with the entity body.^[18] Since this header is often neither sent by servers nor acknowledged by clients, this header and its codes were obsoleted by the HTTP Working Group in 2022 with RFC 9111.^[19]

The following caching related warning codes were specified under RFC 7234.^[20]^[21]

110 Response is Stale: The response provided by a cache is stale (the content's age exceeds a maximum age set by a Cache-Control header or heuristically chosen lifetime).

111 Revalidation Failed: The cache was unable to validate the response, due to an inability to reach the origin server.

112 Disconnected Operation: The cache is intentionally disconnected from the rest of the network.

113 Heuristic Expiration: The cache heuristically chose a freshness lifetime greater than 24 hours and the response's age is greater than 24 hours.

199 Miscellaneous Warning: Arbitrary, non-specific warning. The warning text may be logged or presented to the user.

214 Transformation Applied: Added by a proxy if it applies any transformation to the representation, such as changing the content encoding, media type or the like.

299 Miscellaneous Persistent Warning: Same as 199, but indicating a persistent warning.

For example: Warning: 199 Miscellaneous warning

HTTP Strict Transport Security - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:57:51 +0000

Website protection mechanism

HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) is a policy mechanism that helps to protect websites against man-in-the-middle attacks such as protocol downgrade attacks^[1] and cookie hijacking. It allows web servers to declare that web browsers (or other complying user agents) should automatically interact with it using only HTTPS connections, which provide Transport Layer Security (TLS/SSL), unlike the insecure HTTP used alone. HSTS is an IETF standards track protocol and is specified in RFC 6797.

The HSTS Policy is communicated by the server to the user agent via an HTTP response header field named Strict-Transport-Security. HSTS Policy specifies a period of time during which the user agent should only access the server in a secure fashion.^[2]^: §5.2 Websites using HSTS often do not accept clear text HTTP, either by rejecting connections over HTTP or systematically redirecting users to HTTPS (though this is not required by the specification). The consequence of this is that a user-agent not capable of doing TLS will not be able to connect to the site.

The protection normally only applies after a user has visited the site at least once, relying on the principle of "trust on first use". The way this protection works is that when a user entering or selecting an HTTP (not HTTPS) URL to the site, the client, such as a Web browser, will automatically upgrade to HTTPS without making an HTTP request, thereby preventing any HTTP man-in-the-middle attack from occurring. To counteract this problem, an HSTS preload list maintained by Google Chrome and used by other major web browsers is maintained. If a domain is on this list, the browser skips the initial request and encrypts all communication immediately.^[3] Additional domains can be registered at no cost.^[4]

Specification history

[edit]

The HSTS specification was published as RFC 6797 on 19 November 2012 after being approved on 2 October 2012 by the IESG for publication as a Proposed Standard RFC.^[5] The authors originally submitted it as an Internet Draft on 17 June 2010. With the conversion to an Internet Draft, the specification name was altered from "Strict Transport Security" (STS) to "HTTP Strict Transport Security", because the specification applies only to HTTP.^[6] The HTTP response header field defined in the HSTS specification however remains named "Strict-Transport-Security".

The last so-called "community version" of the then-named "STS" specification was published on 18 December 2009, with revisions based on community feedback.^[7]

The original draft specification by Jeff Hodges from PayPal, Collin Jackson, and Adam Barth was published on 18 September 2009.^[8]

The HSTS specification is based on original work by Jackson and Barth as described in their paper "ForceHTTPS: Protecting High-Security Web Sites from Network Attacks".^[9]

Additionally, HSTS is the realization of one facet of an overall vision for improving web security, put forward by Jeff Hodges and Andy Steingruebl in their 2010 paper The Need for Coherent Web Security Policy Framework(s).^[10]

HSTS mechanism overview

[edit]

A server implements an HSTS policy by supplying a header over an HTTPS connection (HSTS headers over HTTP are ignored).^[1] For example, a server could send a header such that future requests to the domain for the next year (max-age is specified in seconds; 31,536,000 is equal to one non-leap year) use only HTTPS: Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=31536000.

When a web application issues HSTS Policy to user agents, conformant user agents behave as follows:^[2]^: §5

Automatically turn any insecure links referencing the web application into secure links (e.g. http://example.com/some/page/ will be modified to https://example.com/some/page/ before accessing the server).
If the security of the connection cannot be ensured (e.g. the server's TLS certificate is not trusted), the user agent must terminate the connection^[2]^: §8.4 and should not allow the user to access the web application.^[2]^: §12.1

This helps protect web application users against some passive (eavesdropping) and active network attacks.^[2]^: §2.4 A man-in-the-middle attacker has a greatly reduced ability to intercept requests and responses between a user and a web application server while the user's browser has HSTS Policy in effect for that web application.

Applicability

[edit]

The most important security vulnerability that HSTS can fix is SSL-stripping man-in-the-middle attacks, first publicly introduced by Moxie Marlinspike in his 2009 BlackHat Federal talk "New Tricks For Defeating SSL In Practice".^[11]^[12] The SSL (and TLS) stripping attack works by transparently converting a secure HTTPS connection into a plain HTTP connection. The user can see that the connection is insecure, but crucially there is no way of knowing whether the connection should be secure. At the time of Marlinspike's talk, many websites did not use TLS/SSL, therefore there was no way of knowing (without prior knowledge) whether the use of plain HTTP was due to an attack, or simply because the website had not implemented TLS/SSL. Additionally, no warnings are presented to the user during the downgrade process, making the attack fairly subtle to all but the most vigilant. Marlinspike's sslstrip tool, presented at Black Hat DC 2009, fully automates the attack.^[13]

HSTS addresses this problem^[2]^: §2.4 by informing the browser that connections to the site should always use TLS/SSL. The HSTS header can be stripped by the attacker if this is the user's first visit. Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Microsoft Edge attempt to limit this problem by including a "pre-loaded" list of HSTS sites.^[14]^[15]^[16] Unfortunately this solution cannot scale to include all websites on the internet. See limitations, below.

HSTS can also help to prevent having one's cookie-based website login credentials stolen by widely available tools such as Firesheep.^[17]

Because HSTS is time limited, it is sensitive to attacks involving shifting the victim's computer time e.g. using false NTP packets.^[18]

Limitations

[edit]

The initial request remains unprotected from active attacks if it uses an insecure protocol such as plain HTTP or if the URI for the initial request was obtained over an insecure channel.^[2]^: §14.6 The same applies to the first request after the activity period specified in the advertised HSTS Policy max-age (sites should set a period of several days or months depending on user activity and behavior).

Solutions with preload list

[edit]

Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Internet Explorer/Microsoft Edge address this limitation by implementing a "HSTS preloaded list", which is a list that contains known sites supporting HSTS.^[19]^[14]^[15]^[16] This list is distributed with the browser so that it uses HTTPS for the initial request to the listed sites as well. As previously mentioned, these pre-loaded lists cannot scale to cover the entire Web. A potential solution might be achieved by using DNS records to declare HSTS Policy, and accessing them securely via DNSSEC, optionally with certificate fingerprints to ensure validity (which requires running a validating resolver to avoid last mile issues).^[20]

Junade Ali has noted that HSTS is ineffective against the use of false domains; by using DNS-based attacks, it is possible for a man-in-the-middle interceptor to serve traffic from an artificial domain which is not on the HSTS Preload list,^[21] this can be made possible by DNS Spoofing Attacks,^[22] or simply a domain name that misleadingly resembles the real domain name such as www.example.org instead of www.example.com.

Even with an HSTS preloaded list, HSTS cannot prevent advanced attacks against TLS itself, such as the BEAST or CRIME attacks introduced by Juliano Rizzo and Thai Duong. Attacks against TLS itself are orthogonal to HSTS policy enforcement. Neither can it protect against attacks on the server - if someone compromises it, it will happily serve any content over TLS.

Privacy issues

[edit]

HSTS can be used to near-indelibly tag visiting browsers with recoverable identifying data (supercookies) which can persist in and out of browser "incognito" privacy modes. By creating a web page that makes multiple HTTP requests to selected domains, for example, if twenty browser requests to twenty different domains are used, theoretically over one million visitors can be distinguished (2²⁰) due to the resulting requests arriving via HTTP vs. HTTPS; the latter being the previously recorded binary "bits" established earlier via HSTS headers.^[23]

Browser support

[edit]

Settings page for HTTPS Strict Transport Security within Chromium 45, showing the status of the security policy for the domain "en.wikipedia.org".

Chromium and Google Chrome since version 4.0.211.0^[24]^[25]
Firefox since version 4;^[1] with Firefox 17, Mozilla integrates a list of websites supporting HSTS.^[15]
Opera since version 12^[26]
Safari since OS X Mavericks (version 10.9, late 2013)^[27]
Internet Explorer 11 on Windows 8.1 and Windows 7 with KB3058515 installed (Released as a Windows Update in June 2015)^[28]
Microsoft Edge and Internet Explorer 11 on Windows 10^[29]^[30]
BlackBerry 10 Browser and WebView since BlackBerry OS 10.3.3.

Deployment best practices

[edit]

Depending on the actual deployment there are certain threats (e.g. cookie injection attacks) that can be avoided by following best practices.

HSTS hosts should declare HSTS policy at their top-level domain name. For example, an HSTS host at https://sub.example.com should also answer with the HSTS header at https://example.com. The header should specify the includeSubDomains directive.^[2]^: §6.1.2
In addition to HSTS deployment, a host for https://www.example.com should include a request to a resource from https://example.com to make sure that HSTS for the parent domain is set and protects the user from potential cookie injection attacks performed by a MITM that would inject a reference to the parent domain (or even http://nonexistentpeer.example.com), which the attacker then would answer.^[2]^: §11.4

References

[edit]

1 2 3 "Strict-Transport-Security". MDN Web Docs. Mozilla. Archived from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 J. Hodges; C. Jackson; A. Barth (November 2012). HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS). Internet Engineering Task Force. doi:10.17487/RFC6797. ISSN 2070-1721. RFC 6797. Proposed Standard.
↑ Keeler, Dana (1 November 2012). "Preloading HSTS". Mozilla Security Blog. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
↑ "HSTS Preload List Submission". hstspreload.org. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
↑ "[websec] Protocol Action: 'HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS)' to Proposed Standard (draft-ietf-websec-strict-transport-sec-14.txt)". 2 October 2012. Archived from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
↑ Hodges, Jeff (30 June 2010). "Re: [HASMAT] "STS" moniker (was: IETF BoF @IETF-78 Maastricht: HASMAT...)". Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
↑ "Strict Transport Security -06". 18 December 2009. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
↑ "Strict Transport Security -05". 18 September 2009. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
↑ "ForceHTTPS: Protecting High-Security Web Site from Network Attacks". April 2008. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
↑ Hodges, Jeff; Steinguebl, Andy (29 October 2010). "The Need for Coherent Web Security Policy Framework(s)". Archived from the original on 14 August 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
↑ Marlinspike, Moxie (2009). New Tricks For Defeating SSL In Practice (PDF). Black Hat Briefings. Washington, DC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
↑ Defeating SSL Using Sslstrip on YouTube
↑ Marlinspike, Moxie (February 2009). New Tricks for Defeating SSL in Practice (PDF). Black Hat DC 2009.
1 2 Langley, Adam (8 July 2010). "Strict Transport Security". The Chromium Projects. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
1 2 3 Keeler, David (1 November 2012). "Preloading HSTS". Mozilla Security Blog. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
1 2 Bell, Mike; Walp, David (16 February 2015). "HTTP Strict Transport Security comes to Internet Explorer". Archived from the original on 15 November 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
↑ Hodges, Jeff (31 October 2010). "Firesheep and HSTS (HTTP Strict Transport Security)". Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
↑ Selvi, Jose (17 October 2014). Bypassing HTTP Strict Transport Security (PDF). Black Hat Briefings. Amsterdam. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
↑ "Chromium HSTS Preloaded list". cs.chromium.org. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
↑ Butcher, Simon (11 September 2011). "HTTP Strict Transport Security". Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
↑ Ali, Junade (20 October 2017). "Performing & Preventing SSL Stripping: A Plain-English Primer". Cloudflare Blog. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
↑ Maksutov, A. A.; Cherepanov, I. A.; Alekseev, M. S. (2017). Detection and prevention of DNS spoofing attacks. 2017 Siberian Symposium on Data Science and Engineering (SSDSE). pp. 84–87. doi:10.1109/SSDSE.2017.8071970. ISBN 978-1-5386-1593-5. S2CID 44866769.
↑ "The HSTS super cookie forcing you to choose: "privacy or security?" -". sophos.com. 2 February 2015. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
↑ The Chromium Developers (17 November 2010). "Strict Transport Security - The Chromium Projects". Archived from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
↑ Hodges, Jeff (18 September 2009). "fyi: Strict Transport Security specification". Archived from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
↑ Opera Software ASA (23 April 2012). "Web specifications support in Opera Presto 2.10". Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
↑ Langley, Adam [@agl__] (20 December 2013). "Confirmed. See ~/Library/Cookies/HSTS.plist. Includes Chromium preloads as of some date and processes HSTS headers" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2013 – via Twitter.
↑ "HTTP Strict Transport Security comes to Internet Explorer 11 on Windows 8.1 and Windows 7". windows.com. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
↑ "Internet Explorer Web Platform Status and Roadmap". Archived from the original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
↑ "Project Spartan and the Windows 10 January Preview Build - IEBlog". 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on 29 November 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2015.

External links

[edit]

IETF WebSec Working Group
Security Now 262: Strict Transport Security
Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP): HSTS description
Online browser HSTS and Public Key Pinning test
HSTS Preload Submission for Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, IE 11, and Edge
Chromium HSTS Preloaded list
Strict-Transport-Security on MDN Web Docs

TLS and SSL

Protocols and technologies

Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer (TLS/SSL)
Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
Server Name Indication (SNI)
Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN)
DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities (DANE)
DNS Certification Authority Authorization (CAA)
HTTPS
HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS)
HTTP Public Key Pinning (HPKP)
OCSP stapling
Opportunistic TLS
Perfect forward secrecy

Public-key infrastructure

Automated Certificate Management Environment (ACME)
Certificate authority (CA)
CA/Browser Forum
Certificate policy
Certificate revocation
- Certificate revocation list (CRL)
- Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP)
- OCSP stapling
Domain-validated certificate (DV)
Extended Validation Certificate (EV)
Public key certificate
Public-key cryptography
Public key infrastructure (PKI)
Root certificate
Self-signed certificate

Paper cut bug - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:57:47 +0000

Trivially fixable usability bug

In usability and interaction design, a paper cut bug is defined as "a trivially fixable usability bug".^[1]

The developers of the Ubuntu Linux-based operating system describe it as a bug that average users would encounter on their first day of using a brand-new installation of the latest version of Ubuntu Desktop Edition.^[2] The analogy is with a paper cut wound—small, not seriously damaging, but surprisingly painful. The use of the term has since spread to other software projects.^[3] While some projects have dedicated projects or teams for it, others^[4] rely on regular practices to encourage paper cuts to be fixed.

History

[edit]

The first "paper cut" campaign was in June 2009, and each such release has been accompanied by a paper cut project. Initially the project was intended to have Ubuntu developers and users identify and fix one hundred minor bugs that adversely affect the Ubuntu user experience and complete the work to be included in the release of Ubuntu 9.10 Karmic Koala. The intention was that each of these bugs would require no more than a day's work for a competent programmer.^[5]^[6]

The first ten of the original paper cuts were:

Dim file icons when they were "cut" for later "paste" action^[7]
"Move to Trash" option misleading^[8]
Ambiguous wording in confirmation alert box^[9]
"Eject/Unmount" Human theme icon in Nautilus should have hover and click states^[10]
Default folders inside Home Folder, e.g., Documents, Music, should have special icons/emblems^[11]
Update manager should warn about laptop running on battery when installing big updates^[12]
Consistent Volume "Safe to remove" notifications^[13]
"Create Document" sub-menu superfluous when no templates are installed^[14]
Nautilus does not assign custom icon to "Downloads" folder^[15]
Wi-Fi auto-connection asks for keyring password^[16]

Dedicated projects

[edit]

Some organisations, like GitHub, have created dedicated projects^[17] to solve paper cuts. They also categorise small missing features that are hard to make part of the regular processes as paper cuts. Combining this with amplifying each of the solved problems' social media presence also helped seeing the value of each of the fixes.^[18] In GitHub's case the project was started when other community efforts like the browser extension Refined GitHub^[19] were started for solving similar projects.

References

[edit]

↑ "The One Hundred Paper Cuts Project". Ubuntu.com. 11 May 2011. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
↑ "One Hundred Papercuts - Ubuntu Wiki".
↑ "Paper Cuts & Firefox 4 - Alex Limi". Limi.net. 21 June 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
↑ Cowling, James. "Embracing papercuts". dropbox.tech. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
↑ Paul, Ryan (June 2009). "Canonical to boost Ubuntu usability by tackling 'papercuts'". Ars Technica. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
↑ "PaperCut". Archived from the original on 10 May 2011.
↑ "Bug #194213 "Dim files when you 'cut' them for later 'paste' act..." : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #30739 ""Move to Trash" option misleading" : Bugs : nautilus-cd-burner". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #349336 "Ambiguous wording in confirmation alert box" : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #383255 "Eject/Unmount icon in Nautilus sidebar should have ..." : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #126103 "Default folders inside Home Folder (e.g. Documents,..." : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #377697 "update manager should warn about laptop running on ..." : Bugs : update-manager package : Ubuntu". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #386057 "Consistent Volume "Safe to remove" notifications" : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #387655 "'Create Document' sub-menu superfluous when no temp..." : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #388570 "nautilus doesn't assign custom icon to "Downloads" ..." : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Bug #388593 "Wifi auto-connection asks for keyring password" : Bugs : One Hundred Papercuts". Launchpad.
↑ "Introducing Project Paper Cuts". The GitHub Blog. 28 August 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
↑ "Tiny Wins". Joel Califa. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
↑ "GitHub - sindresorhus/refined-github: Browser extension that simplifies the GitHub interface and adds useful features". GitHub. Retrieved 21 July 2021.

Ubuntu

General

Derivatives

Official editions	Edubuntu Kubuntu Lubuntu Ubuntu Ubuntu Budgie Ubuntu Kylin Ubuntu MATE Ubuntu Cinnamon Ubuntu Studio Ubuntu Unity Xubuntu
Community supported	Ubuntu Touch
Third party	AnduinOS elementary OS Emmabuntüs KDE neon Linux Lite Linux Mint Pop!_OS Trisquel Winux Zorin OS
Discontinued	EasyPeasy Ubuntu GNOME Gobuntu Mythbuntu Ubuntu Netbook Edition Ubuntu JeOS

Software

Third party	Brasero GNOME Files
Discontinued	StartUp-Manager Ubuntu for Android Ubuntu One Ubuntu Software Center Upstart Usplash Wubi XSplash

Technology,
user interface

Third party	AppArmor APT deb format dpkg Lomiri Unity

Hardware

Support

Third party	GetDeb

Fonts

Media

Full Circle
Ubuntu User

People

Trust, but verify - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:50:02 +0000

Russian proverb

For the TV series episode, see Trust But Verify.

"Trust, but verify" (Russian: доверяй, но проверяй, romanized: doveryay, no proveryay, IPA: [dəvʲɪˈrʲæj no prəvʲɪˈrʲæj]) is a Russian proverb, which rhymes in Russian. The phrase became internationally known in English after Suzanne Massie, a scholar of Russian history, taught it to Ronald Reagan, then president of the United States, who used it on several occasions in the context of nuclear disarmament discussions with the Soviet Union.

Soviet–American relations

[edit]

1985 Reagan–Gorbachev meeting at the Geneva Summit in Switzerland

Suzanne Massie, an American scholar, met with Ronald Reagan many times between 1984 and 1987 while he was President of the United States.^[1]^[2] She taught him the Russian proverb doveryai, no proveryai (доверяй, но проверяй) meaning 'trust, but verify'. She advised him that "The Russians like to talk in proverbs. It would be nice of you to know a few. You are an actor – you can learn them very quickly."^[3] The proverb was adopted as a signature phrase by Reagan, who used it frequently when discussing United States relations with the Soviet Union.^[4]^[5]^[6]

After Reagan used the phrase to emphasize "the extensive verification procedures that would enable both sides to monitor compliance with the treaty",^[7] at the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, on 8 December 1987, his counterpart General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev responded, "You repeat that at every meeting". To this, Reagan answered, "I like it".^[4]^[8]^[9] While Reagan quoted Russian proverbs, Gorbachev quoted Ralph Waldo Emerson, who had been popular in the USSR when Gorbachev was in college, saying that "the reward of a thing well done is to have done it."^[5]^[7]

Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks, Secretary of State John Kerry told a news conference in Geneva that the United States and Russia had agreed on a framework to dispose of Syria's chemical weapons. He said "President Reagan's old adage about 'trust but verify' ... is in need of an update. And we have committed here to a standard that says 'verify and verify'."^[10]^[11]

Influence

[edit]

In 1995, the similar phrase "Trust and Verify" was used as the motto of the On-Site Inspection Agency (now subsumed into the Defense Threat Reduction Agency).^[12]

In 2000, David T. Lindgren's book about how interpretation, or imagery analysis, of aerial and satellite images of the Soviet Union played a key role in superpowers and in arms control during the Cold War was titled Trust But Verify: Imagery Analysis in the Cold War.^[13]^[14]

In 2001, the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC), a national critical infrastructure threat investigation and response entity, published a paper entitled "Trust but verify" on how to protect oneself and their company from email viruses.^[15]

In 2015, both Democrats and Republicans invoked the phrase when arguing for and against the proposed Iran nuclear deal framework.^[4]

In the study of programming languages, the phrase has been used to describe the implementation of downcasting: the compiler trusts that the downcast term will be of the desired type, but this assumption is verified at runtime in order to avoid undefined behavior.^[16]

The phrase has been used in relation to India–China border disputes and also following the Galwan clash during the 2020 China–India skirmishes.^[17] Variants of the phrase were also reported in the Indian media, "distrust until fully and comprehensively verified", and "verify and still not trust".^[18]^[19]^[20]

On July 24, 2020, US secretary of state Michael Pompeo referenced the proverb in a speech at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library saying that in dealing with China, the United States must instead "distrust and verify".^[21]^[22]

Origins

[edit]

Nikolay Shevchenko of Russia Beyond writes that this saying must have been originated relatively recently. For example Vladimir Dal's vast collection Sayings and Bywords of the Russian people [ru] does not contain anything similar to the proverb. He noticed that both Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin voiced similar ideas, but did not invoke the saying:^[6]

Lenin: "Put no faith in words; subject everything to the closest scrutiny—such is the motto of the Marxist workers"^[23]
Stalin said in an interview with Bela Kun: "Healthy distrust makes a good basis for cooperation".^[24]

The sequel of the film A Great Life, A Great Life, 2 [ru] (shot in 1946 but shelved until 1958) uses the saying as it is.^[24]

References

[edit]

↑ "The Reagan Years". Suzanne Massie.
↑ Murphy, Brian (2025-01-30). "Suzanne Massie, Reagan's Russian whisperer in Cold War, dies at 94". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2025-09-11.
↑ Suzanne Massie speaking on the 22nd Episode of the television documentary, Cold War (TV series).
1 2 3 Barton Swaim (11 March 2016). "'Trust, but verify': An untrustworthy political phrase". The Washington Post. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
1 2 Shanker, Thom (December 9, 1987). "Battle Turns Gentle With Proverbs Galore". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
1 2 Shevchenko, Nikolay (2019-06-17). "Did Reagan really coin the term 'Trust but verify,' a proverb revived by HBO's Chernobyl?". Russia Beyond. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
1 2 Shipler, David K. (9 December 1987). "Reagan and Gorbachev Sign Missile Treaty and Vow to Work for Greater Reductions". New York Times.
↑ "Remarks on Signing the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty" Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, 1987-12-8. Retrieved on 2009-4-8.
↑ Watson, William D. (Fall 2011). "Trust, but Verify: Reagan, Gorbachev, and the INF Treaty". Hilltop Review. 5. Western Michigan University.
↑ "Kerry, Lavrov: Syria to Give Up the Stash in 1 Week—Maybe". The Jewish Press. September 14, 2013. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
↑ Chu, Henry (September 14, 2013). "U.S., Russia agree on a disposal plan for Syria's chemical weapons". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
↑ "DoD News Briefing: Brigadier General Gregory G. Govan, USA, On-Site Inspection Agency". United States Department of Defense. February 22, 1995. Retrieved November 26, 2016.
↑ Lindgren, David T. (November 2000). Trust But Verify: Imagery Analysis in the Cold War. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. pp. xiii+222.
↑ Day, Dwayne A. (October 2001). "Trust but Verify: Imagery Analysis in the Cold War (review)". Technology and Culture. 42 (4): 822–823. doi:10.1353/tech.2001.0156. S2CID 108591052.
↑ Trust but verify [electronic resource] : a guide to using e-mail correspondence (Report). Washington, D.C.: National Infrastructure Protection Center (U.S.). 2001.
↑ Pierce, Benjamin (2002). Types and Programming Languages. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press. p. 194. ISBN 0-262-16209-1.
↑ "China's push for border deal: Why India must 'trust but verify'". Firstpost. 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
↑ Samanta, Pranab Dhal (2020-07-03). "India-China relationship: Distrust until verified is new code for India". The Economic Times. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
↑ Gharekhan, C. r (2020-07-07). "India's foreign relations and the course of history". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
↑ "Disengage, but verify". The Indian Express. 2020-06-25. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
↑ Secretary Pompeo Delivers a Speech at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library. United States Department of State. 24 July 2020. Event occurs at 11:30. Archived from the original on 2021-12-14. Retrieved 24 July 2020 – via YouTube.
↑ Hsu Chung-Che 徐崇哲, ed. (24 July 2020). 蓬佩奧籲全球聯手改變中共對抗暴政捍衛自由[影]. Central News Agency (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 24 July 2020.
↑ "Lenin: Adventurism". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. Quote: Russian: Не верить на слово, проверять строжайше — вот лозунг марксистов рабочих, romanized: Ne verit' na slovo, proveryat' strozhayshe — vot lozung marksistov rabochikh
1 2 "Доверяй, но проверяй – Dslov.ru". dslov.ru. Retrieved 2021-02-19. Quote: Russian: Здоровое недоверие — хорошая основа для совместной работы, romanized: Zdorovoye nedoveriye — khoroshaya osnova dlya sovmestnoy raboty

External links

[edit]

Trust but verify excerpt from Reagan and Gorbachev press conference

Hyponatremia - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:49:37 +0000

Low sodium concentration in the blood

Medical condition

Hyponatremia
Other names	Hyponatraemia, low blood sodium, hyponatræmia

Sodium, as shown on the periodic table
Specialty	Nephrology
Symptoms	Decreased ability to think, headaches, nausea, poor balance, confusion, seizures, coma^[1]^[2]^[3]
Types	Low volume, normal volume, high volume^[4]
Diagnostic method	Serum sodium < 135 mmol/L^[3]
Differential diagnosis	Ethanol intoxication or withdrawal, high protein levels, high blood fat levels, high blood sugar^[5]^[6]
Treatment	Based on underlying cause^[4]
Frequency	Relatively common^[6]^[7]

Hyponatremia or hyponatraemia is a low concentration of sodium in the blood.^[4] It is generally defined as a sodium concentration of less than 135 mmol/L (135 mEq/L), with severe hyponatremia being below 120 mEq/L.^[3]^[8] Symptoms can be absent, mild or severe.^[2]^[9] Mild symptoms include a decreased ability to think, headaches, nausea, and poor balance.^[1]^[3] Severe symptoms include confusion, seizures, and coma;^[1]^[2]^[9] death can ensue.^[10]

The causes of hyponatremia are typically classified by a person's body fluid status into low volume, normal volume, or high volume.^[4] Low volume hyponatremia can occur from diarrhea, vomiting, diuretics, and sweating.^[4] Normal volume hyponatremia is divided into cases with dilute urine and concentrated urine.^[4] Cases in which the urine is dilute include adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism, and drinking too much water or too much beer.^[4] Cases in which the urine is concentrated include syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).^[4] High volume hyponatremia can occur from heart failure, liver failure, and kidney failure.^[4] Conditions that can lead to falsely low sodium measurements include high blood protein levels such as in multiple myeloma, high blood fat levels, and high blood sugar.^[5]^[6]

Treatment is based on the underlying cause.^[4] Correcting hyponatremia too quickly can lead to complications.^[5] Rapid partial correction with 3% normal saline is only recommended in those with significant symptoms and occasionally those in whom the condition was of rapid onset.^[4]^[6] Low volume hyponatremia is typically treated with intravenous normal saline.^[4] SIADH is typically treated by correcting the underlying cause and with fluid restriction while high volume hyponatremia is typically treated with both fluid restriction and a diet low in salt.^[1]^[4] Correction should generally be gradual in those in whom the low levels have been present for more than two days.^[4]

Hyponatremia is the most common type of electrolyte imbalance, and is often found in older adults.^[11]^[12] It occurs in about 20% of those admitted to hospital and 10% of people during or after an endurance sporting event.^[3]^[5] Among those in hospital, hyponatremia is associated with an increased risk of death.^[5] The economic costs of hyponatremia are estimated at $2.6 billion per annum in the United States.^[13]

Invariance of domain - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:49:26 +0000

Notes

[edit]

The conclusion of the theorem can equivalently be formulated as: " $f$ is an open map".

Normally, to check that $f$ is a homeomorphism, one would have to verify that both $f$ and its inverse function $f^{- 1}$ are continuous; the theorem says that if the domain is an open subset of $R^{n}$ and the image is also in $R^{n},$ then continuity of $f^{- 1}$ is automatic. Furthermore, the theorem says that if two subsets $U$ and $V$ of $R^{n}$ are homeomorphic, and $U$ is open, then $V$ must be open as well. (Note that $V$ is open as a subset of $R^{n},$ and not just in the subspace topology. Openness of $V$ in the subspace topology is automatic.) Both of these statements are not at all obvious and are not generally true if one leaves Euclidean space.

It is of crucial importance that both domain and image of $f$ are contained in Euclidean space of the same dimension. Consider for instance the map $f : (0, 1) \to R^{2}$ defined by $f (t) = (t, 0) .$ This map is injective and continuous, the domain is an open subset of $R$ , but the image is not open in $R^{2} .$ A more extreme example is the map $g : (- 1.1, 1) \to R^{2}$ defined by $g (t) = (t^{2} - 1, t^{3} - t)$ because here $g$ is injective and continuous but does not even yield a homeomorphism onto its image.

The theorem is also not generally true in infinitely many dimensions. Consider for instance the Banach L^p space $ℓ^{\infty}$ of all bounded real sequences. Define $f : ℓ^{\infty} \to ℓ^{\infty}$ as the shift $f (x_{1}, x_{2}, \dots) = (0, x_{1}, x_{2}, \dots) .$ Then $f$ is injective and continuous, the domain is open in $ℓ^{\infty}$ , but the image is not.

Axiom of dependent choice - Wikipedia

Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:49:26 +0000

Let

R

be an entire binary relation on

X

. The strategy is to define a tree

T

X

of finite sequences whose neighboring elements satisfy

R .

Then a branch through

T

is an infinite sequence whose neighboring elements satisfy

R .

Start by defining if for Since

R

is entire,

T

is a pruned tree with

ω

levels. Thus,

T

has a branch So, for all which implies Therefore, is true.

$(⟹)$ Let $T$ be a pruned tree on $X$ with $ω$ levels. The strategy is to define a binary relation $R$ on $T$ so that $D C$ produces a sequence $t_{n} = ⟨ x_{0}, \dots, x_{f (n)} ⟩$ where $t_{n} R t_{n + 1}$ and $f (n)$ is a strictly increasing function. Then the infinite sequence $⟨ x_{0}, \dots, x_{k}, \dots ⟩$ is a branch. (This proof only needs to prove this for $f (n) = m + n .$ ) Start by defining $u R v$ if $u$ is an initial subsequence of $v, length (u) > 0,$ and $length (v) =$ $length (u) + 1.$ Since $T$ is a pruned tree with $ω$ levels, $R$ is entire. Therefore, $D C$ implies that there is an infinite sequence $t_{n}$ such that $t_{n} R t_{n + 1} .$ Now $t_{0} = ⟨ x_{0}, \dots, x_{m} ⟩$ for some $m \geq 0.$ Let $x_{m + n}$ be the last element of $t_{n} .$ Then $t_{n} = ⟨ x_{0}, \dots, x_{m}, \dots, x_{m + n} ⟩ .$ For all $k \geq 0,$ the sequence $⟨ x_{0}, \dots, x_{k} ⟩$ belongs to $T$ because it is an initial subsequence of $t_{0} (k \leq m)$ or it is a $t_{n} (k \geq m) .$ Therefore, $⟨ x_{0}, \dots, x_{k}, \dots ⟩$ is a branch.

Bruce Eckel - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 23:55:09 +0000

American computer programmer, author and consultant

Bruce Eckel (born (1957-07-08) July 8, 1957 (age 69)) is a computer programmer, author, and consultant.^{[citation needed]}

Eckel's best known works are Thinking in Java and the two-volume series Thinking in C++, aimed at programmers wanting to learn the Java or C++ programming languages, respectively, particularly those with little experience of object-oriented programming.^{[citation needed]}

Eckel was a founding member of the ANSI/ISO C++ standard committee.^{[citation needed]}

Views on computing

[edit]

In 2011, Eckel extolled the virtues of the Go programming language as a natural successor to C++:^[1]

"The complexity of C++ (even more complexity has been added in the new C++), and the resulting impact on productivity, is no longer justified. All the hoops that the C++ programmer had to jump through in order to use a C-compatible language make no sense anymore — they're just a waste of time and effort. Now, Go makes much more sense for the class of problems that C++ was originally intended to solve."

— Bruce Eckel (2011)^[1]

Bibliography

[edit]

Computer Interfacing with Pascal & C, Bruce Eckel. Eisys 1988, ISBN 0-89716-211-0.
Using C++, Bruce Eckel. Osborne/McGraw-Hill 1989, ISBN 978-0-07-881522-5.
C++ Inside & Out, Bruce Eckel. Osborne/McGraw-Hill 1993, ISBN 978-0-07-881809-7.
Blackbelt C++: The Masters Collection, Edited by Bruce Eckel. M&T/Holt 1994, ISBN 978-1-55851-334-1.
Thinking in C++: Introduction to Standard C++, Volume One (2nd Edition), Bruce Eckel. Prentice-Hall PTR 2000, ISBN 978-0-13-979809-2. Available for free download ^[1]
Thinking in C++, Vol. 2: Practical Programming, 2nd Edition, Bruce Eckel and Chuck Allison. Prentice-Hall PTR, 2003. ISBN 0-13-035313-2. Available for free download ^[1]
Thinking in Java, 4th Edition, Bruce Eckel. Prentice-Hall PTR, 2006. ISBN 0-13-187248-6.
"First Steps in Flex", Bruce Eckel and James Ward. MindView, Inc., 2008. ISBN 978-0-9818725-0-6.
"Atomic Scala", Bruce Eckel and Dianne Marsh. Mindview, LLC, 2013. ISBN 978-0-9818725-1-3.
"On Java 8", Bruce Eckel, MindView LLC, 2017. ISBN 978-0-9818725-2-0.
"Atomic Kotlin", Bruce Eckel & Svetlana Isakova, MindView LLC, 2021. ISBN 978-0-9818725-4-4.

External links

[edit]

Computing Thoughts- Eckel's blog
Interview with Bruce Eckel by Clay Shannon
List of other interviews with him
Latest news on upcoming book Atomic Kotlin
MindView - Eckel's company
Reinventing Business on YouTube - Eckel on building corporate cultures that increase employee happiness and thus employee productivity, O'Reilly Open Source Convention, 2013

Authority control databases
International	ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat
National	United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Latvia Greece Poland Israel
Academics	CiNii Association for Computing Machinery Scopus
People	Trove DDB
Other	IdRef Yale LUX

This biographical article relating to a computer specialist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information.

1 2 mindview LLC. - Books Download Sites

Oink's Pink Palace - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 22:51:46 +0000

Defunct BitTorrent tracker and music sharing community website

Oink's Pink Palace
Oink.cd frontpage (logged in) on 18 October 2007
Type of site	Private BitTorrent tracker
Owner	Alan Ellis (aka Oink)
Created by	Oink (Modified TBSource)
Revenue	Voluntary donations
URL	OiNK.cd or OiNK.me.uk
Registration	Free, Invitation only
Launched	30 May 2004^[1]
Current status	Tracker forcibly shut down

File sharing and online piracy
Part of a series on

Technologies File-hosting services Online video platform Peer to peer Usenet Web hosting WebRTC XDCC
Video watching sites 123Movies PeerTube Putlocker
BitTorrent sites 1337x BTDigg Demonoid ExtraTorrent EZTV isoHunt FitGirl Repacks KickassTorrents Nyaa Torrents RARBG ruTracker.org TamilRockers The Pirate Bay YIFY YourBittorrent
Academic shadow libraries Anna's Archive ICanHazPDF Internet Archive Library Genesis Sci-Hub Shadow library Z-Library
P2P file sharing networks BitTorrent Direct Connect eDonkey Gnutella Gnutella2 FastTrack Napster Hyphanet Kad network I2P Soulseek
P2P file sharing clients BitComet DC++ eMule Filetopia μTorrent LimeWire OnionShare qBittorrent Shareaza Transmission Tribler Vuze WinMX
Video streaming apps Butter Project Kodi Popcorn Time Torrents-Time
Anonymous file sharing Anonymous P2P Darknet Friend-to-friend Private P2P Proxy server Seedbox VPN
History and societal aspects Timeline Legality BitTorrent issues
By country or region Canada Japan Singapore UK USA
Comparisons Comparison of BitTorrent clients Comparison of BitTorrent sites Comparison of IRC clients Comparison of Usenet newsreaders
v t e

Oink's Pink Palace (frequently stylized as OiNK) was a prominent BitTorrent tracker which operated from 2004 to 2007. Following a two-year investigation by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) and the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), the site was shut down on 23 October 2007, by British and Dutch police agencies. These music industry organisations described OiNK as an "online pirate pre-release music club", whereas former users described it as one of the world's largest and most meticulously maintained online music repositories.^[2] About a month before the shut-down, music magazine Blender elected OiNK's creator, British software engineer Alan Ellis, to their The Powergeek 25 – the Most Influential People in Online Music list.^[3] Alan Ellis was tried for conspiracy to defraud at Teesside Crown Court, the first person in the UK to be prosecuted for illegal file-sharing, and found not guilty on 15 January 2010.^[4]

Anna's Archive - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 22:51:30 +0000

Shadow library search engine

Anna's Archive

Anna's Archive homepage (January 15, 2025)
Type of site	Search engine digital library file sharing
Founder(s)	Anna Archivist, Pirate Library Mirror
URL	annas-archive.pk^[1]^[2] annas-archive.gd^[1]^[2] annas-archive.gl^[1]^[2]
Commercial	No
Registration	Optional
Launched	November 2022 (3 years ago) (2022-11)
Current status	Active

File sharing and online piracy
Part of a series on

Technologies File-hosting services Online video platform Peer to peer Usenet Web hosting WebRTC XDCC
Video watching sites 123Movies PeerTube Putlocker
BitTorrent sites 1337x BTDigg Demonoid ExtraTorrent EZTV isoHunt FitGirl Repacks KickassTorrents Nyaa Torrents RARBG ruTracker.org TamilRockers The Pirate Bay YIFY YourBittorrent
Academic shadow libraries Anna's Archive ICanHazPDF Internet Archive Library Genesis Sci-Hub Shadow library Z-Library
P2P file sharing networks BitTorrent Direct Connect eDonkey Gnutella Gnutella2 FastTrack Napster Hyphanet Kad network I2P Soulseek
P2P file sharing clients BitComet DC++ eMule Filetopia μTorrent LimeWire OnionShare qBittorrent Shareaza Transmission Tribler Vuze WinMX
Video streaming apps Butter Project Kodi Popcorn Time Torrents-Time
Anonymous file sharing Anonymous P2P Darknet Friend-to-friend Private P2P Proxy server Seedbox VPN
History and societal aspects Timeline Legality BitTorrent issues
By country or region Canada Japan Singapore UK USA
Comparisons Comparison of BitTorrent clients Comparison of BitTorrent sites Comparison of IRC clients Comparison of Usenet newsreaders
v t e

Anna's Archive is an open source search engine for shadow libraries that was launched by the pseudonymous Anna shortly after law enforcement efforts to shut down Z-Library in 2022. The site aggregates records from Z-Library, Sci-Hub, and Library Genesis (LibGen), among other sources. It calls itself "the largest truly open library in human history",^{[† 1]} and has said it aims to "catalog all the books in existence" and "track humanity's progress toward making all these books easily available in digital form". It claims not to be liable for downloads of copyrighted works since it does not directly host any files, instead linking to third-party downloads. It has nonetheless been targeted for engaging in large-scale copyright infringement, facing government blocks and legal action from rightsholders and publishing trade associations.

Wireless network - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 22:50:22 +0000

Types of wireless networks

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Wireless PAN

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Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) connect devices within a relatively small area, that is generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light provide a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. Zigbee also supports WPAN applications.^[9] Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.^[10]

Wireless LAN

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Wireless LANs are often used for connecting to local resources and to the Internet.

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for internet access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.

Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name. Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link. To connect to Wi-Fi using a mobile device, one can use a device like a wireless router or the private hotspot capability of another mobile device.

Wireless ad hoc network

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A wireless ad hoc network, also known as a wireless mesh network or mobile ad hoc network (MANET), is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes and each node performs routing.^[11] Ad hoc networks can "self-heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power. Various network layer protocols are needed to realize ad hoc mobile networks, such as Distance Sequenced Distance Vector routing, Associativity-Based Routing, Ad hoc on-demand distance-vector routing, and Dynamic Source Routing.

Wireless WAN

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Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighboring towns and cities, or a city and a suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of a business or as a public Internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay, also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic solar panels or wind systems, they can be stand-alone systems.

Cellular network

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Main article: cellular network

Example of frequency reuse factor or pattern, for four frequencies (F1-F4)

A cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. In a cellular network, each cell characteristically uses a different set of radio frequencies from all its immediate neighbouring cells to avoid any interference.

When joined, these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.

Although originally intended for cell phones, with the development of smartphones, cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station, which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station, where the call is transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for the majority of cell phones.^[13]
Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first service to set up a PCS.
D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is being phased out due to advancements in technology. The newer GSM networks are replacing the older system.

Private LTE/5G networks

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Private LTE/5G networks use licensed, shared or unlicensed wireless spectrum thanks to LTE or 5G cellular network base stations, small cells and other radio access network (RAN) infrastructure to transmit voice and data to edge devices (smartphones, embedded modules, routers and gateways.

3GPP defines 5G private networks as non-public networks that typically employ a smaller-scale deployment to meet an organization's needs for reliability, accessibility, and maintainability.

Open Source

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Open source private networks are based on collaborative, community-driven software that relies on peer review and production to use, modify and share the source code.

Global area network

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A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile users across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.^[14]

Space network

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Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft, usually in the vicinity of the Earth. The example of this is NASA's Space Network.

IT service management - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 22:50:09 +0000

Management of information technology services that meet the needs of a business

For computer-managed services, see Daemon (computing).

Information technology management
Core Disciplines
IT Governance IT strategy IT infrastructure IT service management IT project management Information security management Cloud management IT risk management Business-IT alignment IT portfolio management COBIT
Related fields
Information systems Information technology Management information systems Computer science Business informatics Operations management Data management Change management Software engineering management IT operations IT audit Service-level agreement
Information technology management
v t e

Information technology service management (ITSM) is the set of activities performed by an organization to design, build, deliver, operate, and control IT services offered to customers.^[1]

Unlike more technology-oriented IT management approaches like network management and IT systems management,^[2] IT service management is characterized by a process approach toward management, focusing on customer needs and IT services for customers rather than IT systems, and stressing continual improvement. The CIO WaterCooler's 2017 ITSM report states that business uses ITSM "mostly in support of customer experience (35%) and service quality (48%)."^[3]

Process

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Organizational ITSM process execution, especially for workflows, can benefit significantly from being supported with specialized software tools.^[4]

Service desk

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A service desk is a primary IT function within the discipline of IT service management (ITSM) as defined by ITIL. It is intended to provide a Single Point of Contact (SPOC) to meet the communication needs of both users and IT staff,^[5] and to satisfy both customer and IT provider objectives. User refers to the actual user of the service, while customer refers to the entity that is paying for the service. ITSM tools are frequently applied to other aspects of business; this practice is often called enterprise service management (ESM).^[6] A key initiative in ITSM is the automation of routine tasks, enabling personnel to focus on higher-priority responsibilities; this is known as IT process automation.

The ITIL approach considers the service desk to be the central point of contact between service providers and users/customers on a day-to-day basis. It is also a focal point for reporting incidents (disruptions or potential disruptions in service availability or quality) and for submitting service requests (routine requests for services).^[7]

ITIL regards a call center or help desk as similar kinds of tech support which provide only a portion of what a service desk can offer. A service desk has a broader and user-centered approach which is designed to provide the user with an informed single point of contact for all IT activities. A service desk facilitates the integration of business processes into the service management infrastructure. In addition to actively monitoring and owning incidents and user questions, and providing the communications channel for other service management disciplines with the user community, a service desk also provides an interface for other activities such as customer change requests, third parties (e.g. maintenance contracts), and software licensing.^[7] Computer emergency response teams (CERT) are specifically dedicated to computer security incidents.

Frameworks

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Relationships between ITSM frameworks and other management standards

ITSM is similar to other IT and general management approaches, especially information security management and software engineering. Consequently, IT service management frameworks have been influenced by other standards and adopted concepts from them, e.g. CMMI, ISO 9000, or ISO/IEC 27000.^[8]

Various frameworks for ITSM and overlapping disciplines include:

ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library) is a set of detailed practices for IT activities such as IT service management (ITSM) and IT asset management (ITAM) that focus on aligning IT services with business needs and goals.^[9]^[2]
TOGAF is a framework and methodology that aims to define business goals while aligning them with architecture objectives related to software development.
Business Process Framework (eTOM) is a process framework for telecommunications service providers.
COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and Related Technologies) is an IT governance framework that specifies control objectives, metrics, and maturity models. Recent versions have aligned the naming of select control objectives to established ITSM process names.
FitSM^[10] is a standard for lightweight service management. Its criteria includes auditable requirements, document templates, and other resources that are published under Creative Common licenses. Its basic process framework is in large parts aligned to that of ISO/IEC 20000.
CMMI helps service providers establish, manage, and improve services to meet business goals.
ASL's goal is the professional development of application management. This is achieved by offering a framework within which the processes of application management are brought in relation to each other.
USM,^[11] the principle-based USM method provides a standardized management system for a service organization to manage its people, its processes, its technology, and its services, based on an explicit service management architecture.USM specifies the management system that supports the practice-based frameworks and standards and is adopted by the Dutch government^[12] for its management architecture.
ISO/IEC 20000 is an international standard for managing and delivering IT services. Its process model bears many similarities to that of ITIL version 2, since BS 15000 (precursor of ISO/IEC 20000) and ITIL were mutually aligned with version 2 of ITIL. ISO/IEC 20000 defines minimum requirements for an effective "service management system" (SMS). Conformance of the SMS to ISO/IEC can be audited and organizations can achieve an ISO/IEC 20000 certification of their SMS for a defined scope.
BiSL is a best practices framework for the Information Management domain.
MOF^[13] (Microsoft Operations Framework) includes both a general framework of service management functions and guidance on managing services based on Microsoft technologies.

Professional organizations

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There are international, chapter-based professional associations, such as the IT Service Management Forum (itSMF),^[14] and HDI. These organizations' main goal is to foster the exchange of experiences and ideas between ITSM users. To this end, national and local itSMF and HDI chapters (LIGs or local interest groups for itSMF) organize conferences and workshops. Some of them also contribute to the translation of ITSM framework documents into their respective languages or publish their own ITSM guides. There are several service management certifications that include, but are not limited to, ITILv4, TOGAF or COBIT.^[15]

References

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↑ "FitSM Part 0: Overview and vocabulary". Itemo. 24 August 2016. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
1 2 Brenner, Michael; Garschhammer, Markus; Hegering, Heinz-Gerd (15 August 2006). "When Infrastructure Management Just Won't Do - The Trend Towards Organizational IT Service Management". In Eva-Maria Kern; Heinz-Gerd Hegering; Bernd Brügge (eds.). Managing Development and Application of Digital Technologies: Research Insights in the Munich Center for Digital Technology & Management. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 131–146. ISBN 978-3-540-34129-1.
↑ "The IT Service Management Survey 2017". Retrieved 28 November 2017.
↑ "Brenner, M. Classifying ITIL Processes - A Taxonomy under Tool Support Aspects" (PDF). IEEE. 2006..
↑ ITIL Service Design (2011), p. 22.
↑ "Enterprise Service Management". Gartner. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
1 2 ITIL Service Design. The Stationery Office. 2011. ISBN 9780113313051. ITIL Service Operation. The Stationery Office. 2011. ISBN 978-0113313075.
↑ "FitSM Foundation slides handout". Itemo.org. 1 May 2015. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
↑ "(crowdsourced list of) Alternatives to ITIL". list.ly, Jan van Bon. 3 February 2016. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
↑ "FitSM". Itemo. Archived from the original on 9 August 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
↑ "USM Wiki". SURVUZfoundation. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
↑ "USM en het Dienstverleningsconcept". NORA. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
↑ "Microsoft Operations Framework". Microsoft.com. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
↑ "itSMF International".
↑ Shiff, Laura. "Popular IT Service Management (ITSM) Frameworks". BMC Blogs. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.

External links

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Wikiversity has learning resources about IT service management

Wikibooks has more on the topic of: IT service management

Media related to IT service management at Wikimedia Commons

Authority control databases
National	United States Israel
Other	Yale LUX

IT infrastructure - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 22:49:55 +0000

Overview

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IT infrastructure contributes to and drives business functions. Leaders and managers within the IT field are responsible for ensuring that both physical hardware and software networks and resources are working optimally. IT infrastructure is the foundation of an organization's technology systems, and is thereby integral to its success.^[5] Organizations that rely on technology can benefit from having robust, interconnected IT infrastructure.

With the current speed at which technology changes and the competitive nature of businesses, IT leaders have to ensure their IT infrastructure is designed such that changes can be made quickly and without impacting business continuity.^[6] While traditionally companies tended to rely on physical data centers or colocation facilities to support their IT infrastructure, cloud hosting has become more popular as it is easier to manage and scale.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]

IT infrastructure can be managed by the company itself, or it can be outsourced to another company with consulting expertise in developing IT infrastructure.^[11] With advances in online outreach availability, it has become easier for end users to access technology. As a result, IT infrastructures have become more complex, and therefore it is harder for managers to oversee the end to end operations. To mitigate this issue, strong IT infrastructures require employees with varying skill sets. The fields of IT management and IT service management rely on IT infrastructure, and the ITIL framework was developed as a set of best practices with regard to IT infrastructure. The ITIL framework assists companies in being responsive to technological market demands. Technology may be thought of as an innovative product that can incur high production costs. However, the ITIL framework helps address these issues and allows a company to be more cost effective, which helps IT managers keep the IT infrastructure functioning.^[12]

Background

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IBM System360 Mainframe, the first modern mainframe.

The history of IT infrastructure began in the mid-1950s, when mainframe computers were invented by IBM and other technology companies. They were designed to be able to process huge amounts of data at very quick speeds, and are still being used by many companies, banks, and government agencies.^[13] By the 1960s, the IBM System/360 mainframe became the standard. It was the first mainframe computer to introduce compatibility across systems, making it possible for applications created on one computer to operate on another.^[14]^[15]

Although IT infrastructure has existed for 60 years,^[16] there have been significant advancements in technology in the past 20 years. By the 2000s, companies began moving to cloud computing, turning IT infrastructure virtual. This changed how organizations used IT resources. Instead of being bound by the limitations of hardware IT, companies now only needed an internet connection to access IT services.^[17]^[18]

Components of IT infrastructure

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Network switch

The primary components of IT infrastructure are the physical systems, such as hardware, storage, any kind of routers/switches, and the building itself, along with networks and software.^[19] In addition to these components, "IT infrastructure security" is necessary to keep the network and its devices safe and maintain the integrity of the overall infrastructure of the organization.^[20]

IT infrastructure consists of three layers. The physical layer serves as the fundamental layer for hardware. The second and third layers (data link and network, respectively) are essential for communication to and from hardware devices. Without this, networking is not possible, and thus the internet itself would not be possible.^[21] Fiber optics play a crucial role in a network's infrastructure. They serve as the primary means for connecting network equipment and establishing connections between buildings.^[22]

Skills for IT personnel

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In the field of IT infrastructure, key skills include technical abilities such as cloud, network, and data administration skills, as well as soft abilities, like collaboration and communication skills.^[23]^[24]

The future of IT infrastructure

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As data storage and management becomes more digitized, IT infrastructure is moving toward the cloud. Infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) provides the ability to host on a server and is a platform for cloud computing.^[25]

Attachment theory - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 22:49:01 +0000

Psychological ethological theory

For infants and toddlers, the "set-goal" of the hypothesized behavioural system is to maintain or achieve proximity to attachment figures, usually the parents.

Attachment theory posits that infants need to form a close relationship with at least one primary caregiver to ensure their survival and to develop healthy social and emotional functioning.^[1]^[2] It was first developed by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby (1907–90).^[3] The theory proposes that secure attachments are formed when caregivers are sensitive and responsive in social interactions, and consistently available, particularly between the ages of six months and two years. As children grow, they are thought to use these attachment figures as a secure base from which to explore the world and to return to for comfort. Interactions with caregivers have been hypothesized to form a specific kind of attachment behavioral system—or, more recently, internal working model—the relative security or insecurity of which influences characteristic patterns of behavior when forming future relationships.^[4] Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure was proposed as being a normal and adaptive response for a securely attached infant.^[5]

In the 1970s, developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth expanded on Bowlby's work, codifying the caregiver's side of the attachment process as requiring the adult's availability, appropriate responsiveness, and sensitivity to the infant's signals. She and her team devised a laboratory procedure known as the Strange Situation Procedure, which she used to identify attachment patterns in infant–caregiver pairs: secure, avoidant, anxious attachment, and later, disorganized attachment.^[6]^[7] In the 1980s, attachment theory was extended to adult relationships and attachment in adults, making it applicable beyond early childhood.^[8] Bowlby's theory integrated concepts from evolutionary biology, object relations theory, control systems theory, ethology, and cognitive psychology, and was most fully articulated in his trilogy, Attachment and Loss (1969–82).^[9]

While criticized from its inception by academic psychologists, ethnographers, and psychoanalysts in the 1950s,^[10] attachment theory has become a dominant approach to understanding early social development and has generated extensive research.^[11] Several researchers—notably Michael Lamb and his colleagues in the mid-1980s—have shown that the diagnoses of attachment security or insecurity constructed using procedures like the Strange Situation are primarily reflections of what was going on in the social environment during the procedure, external to the child and their caregiver(s).^[12]^[13] Other findings challenge the theory's observational claims, its claims to universal cultural relevance, the role of temperament in shaping attachment behaviour, the unobservability of internal working models, and the limitations of discrete attachment patterns. Attachment advocates rarely address such criticisms;^[14] consequently, the theory's core concepts persist in influencing therapeutic practices, social policy, and childcare policy. Recent findings show that attachment theory is mistaken in assuming that a one-to-one program underpins infant social behaviour. In short, attachment theory overemphasizes maternal influence on shaping children's social lives while overlooking genetic, cross-cultural, and broader social factors.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]

Kriegsspiel - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 21:42:21 +0000

History

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Precursors

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By definition, a "wargame" is a strategy game that attempts to realistically represent warfare. The earliest wargames were invented in the German states around the turn of the 19th century. They were derivatives of chess, but the pieces represented real military units, cavalry, infantry, artillery, etc. and the squares were color-coded to represent different types of terrain.

These early wargames were not realistic enough to satisfy the military. The pieces were constrained to move across a grid in chess-like fashion: only a single piece could occupy a square, even if that square represented, say, a square mile, and the pieces had to move square by square. This, of course, did not represent how real troops maneuvered in the field. The grid system also forced the terrain to take unnatural forms, such as rivers flowing in straight lines and right angles.

Reisswitz Sr.'s prototype (1812)

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In response to these criticisms, a Prussian nobleman and wargaming enthusiast named George Leopold von Reisswitz set out to develop a more realistic wargame wherein the units could move about in a free-form manner over more natural terrain.

Reisswitz first experimented with a table covered in a layer of damp sand. He sculpted the sand into a three-dimensional model battlefield, with hills and valleys. He used little wooden blocks to represent troop formations. The Prussian princes heard about Reisswitz's project and asked for a demonstration. He showed it to them in 1811, and they enthusiastically recommended the game to their father, King Frederick Wilhelm III.

Reisswitz did not want to present the king a table of damp sand, so he set about constructing a more impressive apparatus. In 1812, Reisswitz presented to the king a wooden table-cabinet. The cabinet's drawers stored all the materials to play the game. The cabinet came with a folding board which, when unfolded and placed on top of the cabinet, provided a gaming surface about six feet by six feet in size. Instead of sculpted sand, the battlefield was made out of porcelain tiles, upon which terrain features were depicted in painted bas-relief. The tiles were modular and could be arranged on the table surface to create a custom battlefield. The scale was 1:2373.^[2] Troop formations were represented by little porcelain blocks. The blocks could be moved across the battlefield in a free-form manner; dividers and rulers were used to regulate movement.

The royal family was delighted by Reisswitz's game, and frequently played it. However, it was not adopted by army instructors nor sold commercially. The apparatus that Reisswitz made for the king was too expensive for mass-production.^[3] Additionally, his system was not complete and required some improvisation on the part of the players. For instance, the rules for resolving the effects of hand-to-hand combat and terrain advantage were not fully worked out.^[4] Reisswitz may have been too distracted by the upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars to perfect his game. By 1816, Reisswitz seemed to have lost interest in wargaming altogether. The development of the wargame was continued by his son, Georg Heinrich Rudolf Johann von Reisswitz.^[5]

Reisswitz Jr. perfects Kriegsspiel (1824)

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Georg von Reisswitz (the son)

Dice for the 1824 edition of Kriegsspiel

Georg Heinrich Rudolf Johann von Reisswitz was a junior officer in the Prussian army. He took over the development of his father's wargame after his father lost interest in it. He developed the game with the help of a circle of junior officers in Berlin. The prince eventually heard of Reisswitz Jr.'s project and, having fond memories of playing Reisswitz Sr.'s wargame, joined the son's gaming circle.

In the earlier wargames of Hellwig and Venturini, units were like chess pieces in that when attacked, they were simply killed and removed from play, even if the pieces represented groups of soldiers. By contrast, units in Reisswitz's game could suffer partial losses yet still remain on the battlefield. A unit might withstand several rounds' worth of enemy attacks before finally collapsing. Reisswitz's game was thus the first to incorporate unit hitpoints. It also modeled variable damage: The casualties inflicted by an attacker on his enemy were determined using dice.

Reisswitz Jr.'s game was designed to be played on accurate, large-scale (1:8,000) topographical maps. The Prussian army had recently begun using such maps, which were the product of new advances in cartography and printing. These maps may have not been available to Reisswitz Sr. and previous wargame designers, but they were available by the 1820s and Reisswitz Jr. took advantage of them.^[6] Using topographical maps allowed for more natural terrain and the play of battles in real locations.

Reisswitz Jr.'s great innovation, however, was the introduction of an umpire. The players did not directly control the troop blocks on the game map. Rather, they wrote down their orders for their troops and gave them to the umpire. The umpire would then move the blocks across the game map according to how they judged the imaginary troops would interpret and carry out the players' orders.^[7] When the troops engaged the enemy on the map, it was umpire who rolled the dice, computed the effects, and removed slain units from the map.

The game could simulate the fog of war, where the umpire would place on the map blocks only for the troops which were in visual range of both sides. The umpire kept a mental track of where the hidden troops were located, and only deployed blocks for them when they came into view of the enemy. The umpire arbitrated situations which the rules did not explicitly cover, which plugged any gaps in Reisswitz Jr.'s system. This required the umpire to be an impartial and experienced officer.

In early 1824, the prince invited Reisswitz Jr. to present his wargame to the king and his senior generals at Berlin Castle. They were impressed and officially endorsed his game as a training tool for the officer corps. The Chief of the General Staff, General von Müffling declared: "this is no ordinary sort of game, this is schooling for war. I must and will recommend it most warmly to the army."^[8] The king ordered that every regiment receive a Kriegsspiel set. Reisswitz established a workshop by which he could mass-produce and distribute it.^[9] He sold the game's material in a box-set priced at 30 thalers.^[10] 30 thalers in 1824 had an equivalent purchasing power of €1,704 in 2025 (US$2,020).^[11] This was thus the first wargame to be widely adopted by a military as a serious tool for training and research.

Kriegsspiel after Reisswitz Jr.'s death

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In 1826, Reisswitz was transferred away from Berlin to the provincial city of Torgau. This was interpreted as a banishment: allegedly, he had made offensive remarks about his superiors.^[12] He committed suicide in 1827. This disgrace was detrimental to the progression of his wargame for obvious reasons. It wasn't until 1860 that the game was widely played in the military. Until then, it survived thanks to the efforts of a small number of wargaming clubs. The earliest of these clubs was the Berlin Wargame Association.^[b]

Another prominent club was the Magdeburg Club, managed by General von Moltke. These clubs continued to develop Reisswitz's game, but they avoided mentioning his name in their publications. In 1828, the Berlin Wargame Association published a limited expansion to Reisswitz's system. In 1846, they released a fresh wargaming manual which received a second edition in 1855. These updates sought to make Kriegsspiel more realistic, but they also made the rules more complicated.^[13]

Wilhelm von Tschischwitz published a Kriegsspiel manual in 1862^[c] that incorporated new technological advances such as railroads, telegraph, and breech-loading cannons; and which used conventional gaming dice.^[10] It also greatly simplified the rules, making the wargame even simpler than Reisswitz's original version.^[14] Tschischwitz's rules went through three editions between 1862 and 1869. In 1869, Colonel Thilo von Trotha published his own wargaming treatise which went through three editions and had more complicated rules.

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 broke a long period of peace for the German states, which made many officers feel a pressing need to better familiarize themselves with the conduct of war. This led to a surge in interest in Kriegsspiel among Prussian officers.^[13]

The free Kriegsspiel movement

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Lieutenant Wilhelm Jacob Meckel published a treatise in 1873^[d] and another in 1875^[e] in which he expressed four complaints about the overcomplicated rules of Kriegsspiel: 1) the rules constrain the umpire, preventing them from applying their expertise; 2) the rules are too rigid to realistically model all possible outcomes in a battle, because the real world is complex and ever-changing; 3) the computations for casualties slow down the game and have a minor impact on a player's decisions anyway; 4) few officers are willing to make the effort to learn the rules.^[15]

The fourth issue was the most serious, as the Prussian military struggled to meet the growing demand for umpires.^[16] Meckel proposed dispensing with some of the rules and giving the umpire more discretion to arbitrate events as they saw fit. The only things he kept were the dice and the losses tables for assessing casualties.^[17]

In 1876, General Julius von Verdy du Vernois proposed dispensing with all the rules and tools completely and allowing the umpire to arbitrate the game entirely as he saw fit.^[f] This form of Kriegsspiel came to be known as free Kriegsspiel (counterpart to Reisswitz's rigid Kriegsspiel) and was well-received by the officer corps because it was easier to learn and allowed umpires to apply their own expertise.^[18]^[19] Verdy's insight was that all that was truly essential for Kriegsspiel was the umpire and concealed information, with an emphasis on the fog of war and delayed messaging. Free Kriegsspiel became popular and Reisswitz's rigid style fell out of favor in professional circles.^[20]

Spread of wargaming beyond Germany

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Kriegsspiel attracted little attention outside of Prussia before 1870. Reisswitz Jr. travelled to Russia where he demonstrated Kriegsspiel to the Russian court, but he failed to win them over. In 1825, the French general Auguste de Marmont witnessed a Kriegsspiel match in Berlin and commissioned a translation of Reisswitz's manual which was submitted to the French army in March 1829.^[21] A Dutch translation appeared in 1836.

In 1870, Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War. Many credited the Prussian army's superior performance to its wargaming tradition. The Prussian army did not have any significant advantage in weaponry, numbers, or troop quality, but it was the only army in the world that practiced wargaming.^[22] This led to great worldwide interest in Kriegsspiel. The first Kriegsspiel manual in English, Rules for the Conduct of the War-Game by E. Baring, based on the system of Wilhelm von Tschischwitz, was published in 1872 for the British army and received a royal endorsement.^[10]

In the United States, Charles Adiel Lewis Totten published Strategos, the American War Game in 1880. In 1882, William R. Livermore published The American Kriegsspiel. In 1873, a group of students and teachers at Oxford University founded the University Kriegspiel [sic] Club, which was the world's first recreational wargaming club for civilians.

Kriegsspiel in the present day

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Players gather around a map for a debriefing by the umpire. Note the umpire's use of plastic that allows the recording of orders and other information.

The emblem of the International Kriegsspiel Society.

Kriegsspiel has undergone a minor revival in the English-speaking world thanks to translations of the original rulebooks by a British wargaming enthusiast named Bill Leeson.^{[citation needed]} At least three major, non-military, enthusiast groups play Kriegsspiel around the world. The game is also played for fun by other small groups and individuals, but because of the effort involved, such events are uncommon. The senior of the three major groups is The Kriegsspiel Society located in the town of Little Gaddesden, UK. The group plays face-to-face games several times per year.^[23]

The second group is the Southern California Kriegsspiel Society, based in Los Angeles. They meet at the Strategicon conventions in Los Angeles for face-to-face games. The third group is the International Kriegsspiel Society (IKS), established in 2021 by Marshall Neal as an outgrowth of the Southern California Kriegsspiel Society. The group uses Discord and Tabletop Simulator to coordinate and play games. As of 2025, the group has over 3,300 members, and hosts multiple games on a daily basis.^[24]

The International Kriegsspiel Society has modified the original rules of Kriegsspiel to allow for shorter games that can be played with larger numbers of players.^[25] Because Kriegsspiel requires a lot of effort from players and adjudication from umpires, the game is almost unplayable in its original form unless a large number of trained umpires or a small number of players participate.^{[citation needed]} Small games with a single umpire and a few players are possible, but larger games can run slowly as the workload for umpires increases.^[26]

Therefore, the original rules are modified to preserve the critical components of Kriegsspiel, specifically, the games are umpired, double-blind, use simultaneous movement, emphasize fog of war, and feature delayed communications and execution of orders. The aim is to preserve realism while streamlining minutiae that can slow the game without adding value to the experience. The society also hosts games that play by post, meaning players submit orders online by message (email or Discord chat) and the turns are processed by an umpire on a regular basis.^[27]

In August 2021, the International Kriegsspiel Society ran what is likely the largest online, civilian Kriegsspiel up until then, with 48 participants. Six master umpires worked with 12 assistants to manage the game. The battle was inspired by the Battle of Gettysburg.^[28]

On July 15, 2023, the IKS ran an even larger game online. With 96 participants, of which 22 were umpires, "Grand Waterloo", based on the Battle of Waterloo, was the largest civilian online Kriegsspiel ever run.^[29]^[30] as another "Grand Battle", the IKS is preparing "Grand Leipzig 1813" for October 28, 2023.

Generative AI - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 21:29:06 +0000

AI that generates content

"GenAI" redirects here; not to be confused with Artificial general intelligence.

Théâtre D'opéra Spatial (Space Opera Theater, 2022), an image made with Midjourney that won an award at the Colorado State Fair's fine art competition

Artificial intelligence (AI)
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v t e

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) is a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) that uses generative models to generate text, images, videos, audio, software code (vibe coding) or other forms of data.^[1] These models learn the underlying patterns and structures of their training data, and use them to generate new data^[2] in response to input, which often takes the form of natural language prompts.^[3]^[4]

The prevalence of generative AI tools has increased significantly since the AI boom in the 2020s. This boom was made possible by improvements in deep neural networks, particularly large language models (LLMs), which are based on the transformer architecture. Generative AI applications include chatbots such as ChatGPT, Claude, Copilot, DeepSeek, Doubao, Google Gemini, Grok and Qwen; text-to-image models such as DALL-E, Firefly, Stable Diffusion, and Midjourney; and text-to-video models such as Veo, LTX and Sora.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Generative AI has been used for cybercrime, and to deceive and manipulate people through fake news and deepfakes.^[15]^[16] Generative AI models have been trained on copyrighted works without the rightholders' permission.^[17] Many generative AI systems use large-scale data centers, whose environmental impacts include electronic waste, consumption of fresh water for cooling, and high energy consumption that is estimated to be growing steadily.^[18]

Deaths linked to chatbots - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 21:28:51 +0000

Murders

[edit]

Maine murder and assault

[edit]

On 19 February 2025, a man killed his 32-year-old wife with a fire poker at his parents' home in Readfield, Maine, US. He then attacked his mother, leaving her hospitalized. A state forensic psychologist testified that he had been using ChatGPT up to 14 hours per day and believed his wife had become part machine.^[7]

Florida State University mass shooting

[edit]

Main article: 2025 Florida State University shooting

In April of 2025, Phoenix Ikner carried out a mass shooting on the Florida State University campus in the US, killing Robert Morales and Tiru Chabba and wounding several others. Leading up to the shooting, Ikner consulted heavily with ChatGPT about what gun and ammunition to use, and what time to perform the attack.^[8] Chatbot logs showed ChatGPT giving advice on making the gun operational shortly before Ikner began shooting.^[9]

Lawyers representing Morales believed the shooter had been in "constant communication" with ChatGPT before the shooting and said that they intended to "file suit against ChatGPT, and its ownership structure, very soon, and will seek to hold them accountable for the untimely and senseless death of our client".^[10] Florida Attorney General James Uthmeier announced an investigation into ChatGPT's role in the alleged shooter's use of the chatbot.^[9]

In May 2026, the widow of Tiru Chabba filed a lawsuit against OpenAI in Florida's northern federal district court.^[11]

Greenwich murder-suicide

[edit]

Main article: Murder of Suzanne Adams

In August 2025, former US tech employee Stein-Erik Soelberg murdered his mother, Suzanne Eberson Adams, then died by suicide, after conversations with ChatGPT fueled paranoid delusions about his mother poisoning him or plotting against him. The chatbot affirmed his fears that his mother put psychedelic drugs in the air vents of his car and said a receipt from a Chinese restaurant contained mysterious symbols linking his mother to a demon.^[12]

Murder of Angela Shellis

[edit]

On 23 October 2025, 18-year-old Tristan Roberts murdered his mother Angela Shellis with a hammer near their home in Prestatyn, Wales. Roberts had used DeepSeek's chatbot prior to the killing to ask whether a knife or hammer was better suited for murder. DeepSeek initially refused his inquiry, but gave responses after Roberts told the chatbot he was writing a book about serial killers,^[13]^[14]^[15] a well-known technique for jailbreaking AIs.

Gangbuk District drug deaths

[edit]

In January and February 2026, two men died of drug overdoses in motel rooms in Gangbuk District, Seoul, South Korea. A woman was charged with murder in connection with the deaths; police alleged that she had asked ChatGPT about the dangers of mixing alcohol with drugs and whether they could kill someone.^[16]

Tumbler Ridge mass shooting

[edit]

Main article: 2026 Tumbler Ridge shooting

On 10 February 2026, a mass shooting in Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia, Canada, resulted in eight deaths, including six young children. The perpetrator had their ChatGPT account banned by OpenAI months before the attack due to troubling posts featuring scenarios of gun violence. According to reports, approximately a dozen OpenAI staff members debated whether to alert authorities about the shooter's usage of the AI tool, with some identifying it as an indication of potential real-world violence.^[17] However, company leadership decided not to contact law enforcement, stating that the account activity did not meet their threshold for a credible or imminent plan for serious physical harm. Following the shooting, Canada's AI Minister Evan Solomon summoned OpenAI executives to Ottawa to discuss safety protocols and thresholds for escalating harmful content to police.^[18] Justice Minister Sean Fraser called the meeting "disappointing" and demanded substantial new safety measures, warning that if changes were not forthcoming, the government would implement them. OpenAI subsequently announced it had strengthened safeguards and changed guidelines about when to notify police in cases involving violent activities.

University of South Florida student killings

[edit]

In April 2026, a Bangladeshi doctoral student at the University of South Florida was arrested for allegedly murdering his roommate and the roommate's friend. Prosecutors said that the suspect had asked ChatGPT about disposing of a human in a dumpster before the two victims had disappeared and made other inquiries relating to violence.^[19]

NSPM-7 - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 20:56:58 +0000

2025 US President Trump national security directive

NSPM-7
Federal Register details
Countering Domestic Terrorism and Organized Political Violence


President	Donald Trump
Signed	September 25, 2025; 9 months ago (2025-09-25)
Federal Register document number	2025-19141
Publication date	September 30, 2025
Document citation	90 FR 47225

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Designating Antifa as a Domestic Terrorist Organization

Authoritarian drift in the United States during the second Trump administration
Part of a series on
Political ideology Agenda 47 Election denialism Trump and fascism Trumpism Project Esther Project 2025
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Targeting of transgender people Transgender people Gender-affirming care under 19 Military service
Targeting of civil society Political opponents and civil society Censorship Lawyers and law firms NSPM-7 Weaponization Working Group Reprisals against Charlie Kirk critics Academia and science Columbia Harvard
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Related articles Democratic backsliding in the US Third wave of autocratization
v t e

National Security Presidential Memorandum-7 (NSPM-7), titled "Countering Domestic Terrorism and Organized Political Violence",^[1] is a United States National Security Presidential Memorandum (NSPM) issued by President Donald Trump on September 25, 2025. It tasks federal agencies with dismantling networks associated with politically motivated violence, particularly those linked to "anti-fascism" (often referred to as 'antifa' by Trump), illegal immigration disruptions, and riots.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] Critics of the NSPM-7 are concerned that the broad definitions and targeted enforcement could be used to intimidate or overly scrutinize activist groups, nonprofits, and political opposition.^[6] The memorandum follows the assassination of Charlie Kirk and the 2025 Dallas ICE facility shooting that happened the day before. It cites a rise in politically motivated violence, alleging that such violence stems from "sophisticated, organized campaigns" rather than isolated incidents. It directs the Joint Terrorism Task Force to investigate and disrupt organizations involved in political violence, instructs the United States Attorney General to prosecute related federal crimes, and tasks the Treasury Secretary and Commissioner of Internal Revenue with disrupting the funding of such groups. Following the memorandum's issuance, the Trump administration designated Antifa as a domestic terrorist organization, and federal prosecutors secured terrorism convictions against protesters linked to the 2025 Prairieland ICE Detention Center incident. Civil liberties organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union and Human Rights Watch, condemned the directive, arguing it could be used to target political opponents and suppress dissent; the Brennan Center for Justice concluded that both the memorandum and the related Antifa designation order were "ungrounded in fact and law."

Corned beef - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 19:35:27 +0000

Pre-20th century

[edit]

An 1898 illustration of a tin of corned beef produced by Libby's

A corned beef sandwich served in a diner

Although the practice of curing beef existed across the globe since the period of classical antiquity, the industrial production of corned beef started in the British Isles during the British Agricultural Revolution. Corned beef sourced from cattle reared in Ireland and Scotland was used extensively for civilian and military consumption throughout the British Empire beginning from the 17th century onwards due to its non-perishable nature.^[4] Irish and Scottish corned beef was also sold to the French West Indies, where it was used to feed both settlers and slaves.^[10] Industrial processes in the British Isles for producing corned beef during the 17th century did not distinguish different cuts of beef beyond the tough and undesirable parts of the cow such as the beef shank and neck.^[10]^[11] Instead, the grading was done by sorting all cuts of beef by weight into "small beef", "cargo beef" and "best mess beef", with the first being considered the worst and the last the best.^[10] "Small beef" and "cargo beef" cuts were most commonly traded to the French, while "best mess beef" were frequently intended for sale and consumption in markets throughout the British Empire.^[10]

Ireland produced a significant portion of corned beef consumed in the British Empire during the early modern period, using cattle reared locally and salt imported from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France.^[10] Irish port cities, such as Dublin, Belfast and Cork, became home to large-scale beef curing and packing industries, with Cork alone producing half of Ireland's annual beef exports in 1668.^[11] Although the consumption of corned beef carried no significant negative connotations in Europe, in European colonies in the Americas it was frequently looked upon with disdain due to being primarily consumed by poor people and slaves.^[10] American social theorist Jeremy Rifkin noted the sociopolitical effect of corned beef in the British Isles during the early modern period in his 1992 book Beyond Beef: The Rise and Fall of the Cattle Culture:

The British enclosure movement had displaced thousands of rural English families, creating a cheap new labour pool to fill the unskilled jobs in the industrial factories of London, Leeds, Manchester, and Bristol. Shortages of foodstuffs and rising prices were fueling discontent among the new working class and middle class of the cities, threatening open rebellion. British officials and entrepreneurs quieted the masses with Scottish and Irish beef. Historians of the period point out that were it not for the Celtic pasturelands of Scotland and Ireland, it might well have proved impossible to quell the growing unrest of the British working class during the critical decades of British industrial expansion.^[12]

Despite being a major producer of corned beef, the majority of the Irish population during this period, native tenant farmers, consumed relatively little meat in their diets. This was due to a variety of factors, including the high costs of buying meat in Ireland and the ownership of the majority of Irish farms by Anglo-Irish landowners, who marked most of the corned beef produced using their cattle for export. The level of meat, including corned beef, present in the Irish diet of the period decreased in areas away from major centres for corned beef production, such as Northern Ireland, while increasing in areas such as County Cork. The majority of meat consumed by working-class Irish Catholics consisted of cheap products such as salt pork, with bacon and cabbage quickly becoming one of the most common meals in Irish cuisine.^[11]

Heapsort - Wikipedia

Wed, 15 Jul 2026 19:00:46 +0000

Pseudocode

[edit]

The following is a simple way to implement the algorithm in pseudocode. Arrays are zero-based and swap is used to exchange two elements of the array. Movement 'down' means from the root towards the leaves, or from lower indices to higher. Note that during the sort, the largest element is at the root of the heap at a[0], while at the end of the sort, the largest element is in a[end].

procedure heapsort(a, count) is
    input: an unordered array a of length count
 
    (Build the heap in array a so that largest value is at the root)
    heapify(a, count)

    (The following loop maintains the invariants that a[0:end−1] is a heap, and
    every element a[end:count−1] beyond end is greater than everything before it,
    i.e. a[end:count−1] is in sorted order.)
    end ← count
    while end > 1 do
        (the heap size is reduced by one)
        end ← end − 1
        (a[0] is the root and largest value. The swap moves it in front of the sorted elements.)
        swap(a[end], a[0])
        (the swap ruined the heap property, so restore it)
        siftDown(a, 0, end)

The sorting routine uses two subroutines, heapify and siftDown. The former is the common in-place heap construction routine, while the latter is a common subroutine for implementing heapify.

(Put elements of 'a' in heap order, in-place)
procedure heapify(a, count) is
    (start is initialized to the first leaf node)
    (the last element in a 0-based array is at index count-1; find the parent of that element)
    start ← iParent(count-1) + 1
    
    while start > 0 do
        (go to the last non-heap node)
        start ← start − 1
        (sift down the node at index 'start' to the proper place such that all nodes below
         the start index are in heap order)
        siftDown(a, start, count)
    (after sifting down the root all nodes/elements are in heap order)
    
(Repair the heap whose root element is at index 'start', assuming the heaps rooted at its children are valid)
procedure siftDown(a, root, end) is
    while iLeftChild(root) < end do    (While the root has at least one child)
        child ← iLeftChild(root)       (Left child of root)
        (If there is a right child and that child is greater)
        if child+1 < end and a[child] < a[child+1] then
            child ← child + 1
    
        if a[root] < a[child] then
            swap(a[root], a[child])
            root ← child         (repeat to continue sifting down the child now)
        else
            (The root holds the largest element. Since we may assume the heaps rooted
             at the children are valid, this means that we are done.)
            return

The heapify procedure operates by building small heaps and repeatedly merging them using siftDown. It starts with the leaves, observing that they are trivial but valid heaps by themselves, and then adds parents. Starting with element n/2 and working backwards, each internal node is made the root of a valid heap by sifting down. The last step is sifting down the first element, after which the entire array obeys the heap property.

To see that this takes O(n) time, count the worst-case number of siftDown iterations. The last half of the array requires zero iterations, the preceding quarter requires at most one iteration, the eighth before that requires at most two iterations, the sixteenth before that requires at most three, and so on.

Looked at a different way, if we assume every siftDown call requires the maximum number of iterations, the first half of the array requires one iteration, the first quarter requires one more (total 2), the first eighth requires yet another (total 3), and so on.

This totals n/2 + n/4 + n/8 + ⋯ = n⋅(1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ⋯), where the infinite sum is a well-known geometric series whose sum is 1, thus the product is simply n.

The above is an approximation. The exact worst-case number of comparisons during the heap-construction phase of heapsort is known to be equal to 2n − 2s₂(n) − e₂(n), where s₂(n) is the number of 1 bits in the binary representation of n and e₂(n) is the number of trailing 0 bits.^[6]^[7]

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